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Latin American Studies 19th Century Haitian Novel
by
Luis Duno-Gottberg

Introduction

Nineteenth-century Haitian novels, with their underscored relevance for the history of the Caribbean and Latin America, constitute a small body of literature as a result of three distinct challenges: the small number of novels published, the inaccessibility of primary sources, and the tendency of several novelists to develop stories far removed from Haitian realities. It must be added that 19th-century Haitian novels were written entirely in French, and they closely followed the aesthetic models of the former colonial metropolis. Honoré de Balzac, Victor Hugo, and Émile Zola often come to mind when reading some of these novels. Haitian Creole had been present in poetry since the late 18th century, but it was not widely used in any major novel until two centuries later. Despite its shortcomings, the 19th-century Haitian novel constitutes a valuable window into the complex development of a national literature under the pressures of the postcolonial order. These works are not only important primary sources for exploring the origins of Haiti’s literary tradition but also provide insight into matters of race, transculturation, nationalism, and cultural dependency.

General Overviews

Novelists from this period can be considered pioneers in that they were the first to develop long fictional narratives in Haiti. But they were hardly original in their aesthetic choices. Critics such as Gouraige, Pompilus, and Berrou have grouped these writers into two main schools. The Romantic school was dominated by Emeric Bergeaud, Demesvar Delorme, and Louis J. Janvier. In transition to the 20th century, the National school was dominated by Frédéric Marcelin, Fernand Hibbert, Justin Lhérisson, Antoine Innocent, Jules Domingues, and Amédée Brun. This National school was also called the “generation of La Ronde,” named after the journal that brought them together around 1898. Although some of the novels attributed to these schools were published in the early 20th century, they also seemed relevant to the general panorama of the 19th-century Haitian novel by the themes they addressed. In addition, certain forms they employed were deeply rooted in either the Romantic or the realist traditions. Most critical approaches to the 19th-century Haitian novel tended to be descriptive, focusing on anecdotal or formal aspects, while ignoring the larger sociocultural realm. Some important exceptions do exist: Pompilus 1961 provides a general context and abundant examples, although his critical stance is descriptive. Trouillot 1962 offers one of the first solid socio-critical studies of this period. Dash 1981 and Hoffman 1982 offer the best overviews of the period by undertaking readings informed by literary as well as sociopolitical considerations.

  • Dash, J. M. Literature and Ideology in Haiti, 1915–1961. Totowa, NJ: Barnes and Noble, 1981.

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    This is an admirable critical survey of 20th-century Haitian literature. The introduction, nevertheless, offers some of the most intelligent and useful reviews of 19th-century Haitian literature. The author’s discussion of the generation of La Ronde is particularly useful to understand the sociocultural context in which these authors produced their work.

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  • Hoffmann, Léon-François. Le roman Haitien: Idéologie et structure. Sherbrooke, Quebec: Editions Naaman, 1982.

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    This is a comprehensive review of the Haitian novel, from its origins to the 1980s. Instead of following generations of authors and successions of schools, Hoffmann adopts a synchronic approach that organizes novels and authors around key problems: the idea of a national novel in a postcolonial setting, the problems of readership, and the challenges of distribution.

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  • Pompilus, Pradel. Manuel illustré d’histoire de la littérature Haïtienne. Port-au-Prince: H. Deschamps, 1961.

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    This is a useful and well-known panorama of Haitian literary history. Although its critical approach now seems dated, the book contains abundant information on 19th-century writers and movements. It also includes extensive quotes from hard-to-find texts, along with several interesting plates.

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  • Trouillot, Hénock. Les origines sociales de la littérature Haïtienne. Port-au-Prince: Impr. N.A. Théodore, 1962.

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    Differs from most books on the topic by addressing literature from a socio-critical perspective. Rather than describing aesthetic currents and novels, Trouillot opts for a discussion of the historical and political forces that shaped Haitian literature. Eddy Arnold Jean criticized Trouillot’s reading of the 19th century, accusing him of noirisme, the Haitian brand of negritude (see Jean and Fièvre 1987, pp. 14–15, under Literary Histories and Critical Essays).

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Anthologies

Only two anthologies cover the work of early Haitian novelists: Rey 1978 and Van Zeebroeck 1985. The most complete is Rey 1978, which includes extensive passages from the most important authors.

  • Rey, Ghislaine. Anthologie du roman Haïtien (1859–1946). Sherbrooke, Quebec: Editions Naaman, 1978.

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    This is an excellent resource for accessing hard-to-find primary resources. The book follows a chronological order and organizes its content around specific authors. The first part covers 1859 to 1915: Émeric Bergeaud, Demesvar Delorme, Louis-Joseph Janvier, Amédée Brun, Frédéric Marcelin, Jules Domingue, Etzer Vilaire, Fernand Hibbert, Massillon Coicou, Justin Lhérisson, Antoine Innocent, and François Lavelanet.

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  • Van Zeebroeck, M.A. Anthologie de la littérature Française d’Haïti. Port-au-Prince: Editions du Soleil, 1985.

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    The author offers valuable criteria for a periodization of Haitian literature. The volume focuses on 20th-century literature, but it includes some materials from the generation of La Ronde.

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Literary Histories and Critical Essays

Only a few literary histories address 19th-century Haitian literature. Most of these offer inventories of authors and works without much socio-critical consideration. Firmin 1910 provides an early reflection on the cultural landscape of 19th-century Haiti. Vaval 1971, Berrou and Pompilus 1975, and Gouraige 1982 are extensive literary panoramas, covering the life and work of all 19th-century novelists. These are similar in tone and scope. Jean and Fièvre 1986, and Jean and Fièvre 1987 provide a good historical background to 19th-century literary movements. Hoffman 1984 was the first in-depth critical analysis of Stella, the first Haitian novel. Biloa 2010 is the most innovative and up-to-date discussion of 19th-century Haitian literature, focusing exclusively on the topic of slavery and representation.

  • Berrou, Raphaël, and Pradel Pompilus. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne illustrée par les textes. Port-au-Prince: Editions Caraibes, 1975.

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    This extensive literary history comprises three volumes and includes numerous plates. Like other books of this kind, this one is organized chronologically, working around literary genres and key authors. The critical approach can be characterized as descriptive, but it is one of the most comprehensive histories of Haitian literature. Volumes 1 and 2 offer good overviews of authors such as Emeric Bergeaud, Demesvar Delorme, and others.

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  • Biloa, Onana M. Der Sklavenaufstand von Haiti: Ethnische Differenz und Humanitätsideale in der Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts. Cologne: Böhlau, 2010.

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    Outstanding monograph on 19th-century Haitian literature. The author explores narratives dealing with slavery and ethnicity, offering the first in-depth critical approach to 19th-century Haitian literature while moving away from the literary panoramas.

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  • Firmin, Joseph Anténor. Lettres de Saint Thomas: Études sociologiques, historiques et littéraires. Paris: V. Girard and E. Brière, 1910.

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    Firmin is a contemporary of the novelists discussed here, and although his literary production focused on the essay, he was extremely influential during his time and shaped the intellectual discussion of the moment. This book offers an excellent insight into those discussions.

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  • Gouraige, Ghislain. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne (de l’indépendance à nos jours). Port-au-Prince: Editions de l’Action Sociale, 1982.

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    This comprehensive literary history, first published in 1960, follows a diachronic structure and tends to be very descriptive. As a secondary source, it is nevertheless the basis for many studies published in the 1970s and 1980s. The book briefly addresses early pioneers, the novels of Demesvar Delorme, Louis Joseph Janvier, and the National school. Also includes authors whose work extends into the beginning of the 20th century.

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  • Hoffmann, Léon-François. Essays on Haitian Literature. Washington, DC: Three Continents, 1984.

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    Provides an excellent introduction to the study of Haitian literature and includes a bibliography of critical studies. With the exception of a seminal essay on Bergeaud, 19th-century authors are not analyzed in much detail. Other authors, born in the late 19th century and publishing in the first decade of the 20th century, receive favorable critical attention.

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  • Jean, Eddy A., and Justin O. Fièvre. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne. Port-au-Prince: Impr. Des Antilles, 1986.

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    This literary history, first published in 1972, offers a brief review of important aesthetic movements and authors of Haitian literature. While discussion of the 19th-century novel is limited, the book is useful for understanding this period, as the author reflects and expands on the importance of two crucial historians of the time, Beaubrun Ardouin and Thomas Madiou.

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  • Jean, Eddy A., and Justin O. Fièvre. Le 19e siècle Haïtien. Port-au-Prince: Éditions Rudegert, 1987.

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    Studies the literary production of the generation of La Ronde. Provides a good overview of Georges Sylvain, Etzer Vilaire, Edmond Laforest, Frédéric Marcelin, Fernand Hibbert, Justin Lhérisson, and Antoine Innocent.

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  • Vaval, Duraciné. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne: Ou, “l’âme noire.” Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus, 1971.

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    Originally published in 1933, this book was reprinted in 1971 and 1986. Vaval offers one of the first comprehensive reviews of the history of Haitian literature from 1804 to the 1930s. Although the critical approach might be dated and the style highly impressionistic, this book still provides some background information on the literary movements and authors from the 19th century.

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Cultural History

Dolcé, et al. 1983 provides one of the few intellectual histories of 19th-century Haiti. One major contribution of this volume is its emphasis on circulation of print culture in a country with high levels of analphabetism. Similarly, Jean 2001 explains the impact of sociopolitical forces in the work of 19th-century intellectuals. Nicholls 1996 provides the most detailed revision of the role of race in 19th-century Haiti.

  • Dolcé, Jacquelin, Gérald Dorval, and Jean M. Casthely. Le romantisme en Haïti: La vie intellectuelle, 1804–1915. Collection Pensée Häitienne. Port-au-Prince: Editions Fardin, 1983.

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    This is a useful social history that explores the intellectual life of 19th-century Haiti. The relationship between politics and cultural production is outlined in the chapters that deal with economic and social structures, audiences, distribution, and publishing.

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  • Jean, Eddy A. La pensée politique Haïtienne (xixe siècle). Port-au-Prince: Editions Haïti-Demain, 2001.

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    This useful book departs from Eddy A. Jean’s collaboration with Justin O. Fièvre in their 1972 Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne. Nevertheless, La pensée politique Haïtienne provides a unique map of the sociopolitical forces shaping Haitian literature in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

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  • Nicholls, David. From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti. Warwick University Caribbean Studies. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1996.

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    This well-known book explores the relevance of “race” and “color” throughout Haitian history. Although it doesn’t address the literary field specifically, its revision of 19th-century history is invaluable. The first four chapters draw a detailed map of political actors and social forces that would certainly influence the work of the first novelists.

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Dissertations

It would be an understatement to say that the number of dissertations on 19th-century Haitian literature is extremely limited. Gouraige 1948 provides an early study of Marcelin’s desire to represent Haitian society. Nevertheless, two recent contributions, Colimon 2007 and Reinsel 2008, offer a promising path for further exploration. Reinsel focuses on poetry, but she also provides relevant insight for studying the novel. Colimon’s comparative approach is also highly original.

  • Colimon, Loreque. “Writing Violence and Violence Writing: The Haitian and African French Novel between the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century. A Comparative Study.” PhD diss., University of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2007.

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    Comparative study on the theme of violence as represented in 19th- and 20th-century Haitian and African literature. In the case of Haiti, the author focuses on Justin Lhérisson. This research also offers a valuable discussion of Lhérisson’s use of Haitian Creole within the French text and context of colonial and postcolonial violence.

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  • Gouraige, Ghislain. “Frédéric Marcelin, peintre d’une epoque.” M.A. thesis, Université Laval, 1948.

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    Studies Marcelin’s commitment to the description of Haiti’s realities.

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  • Reinsel, Amy L. “Poetry of Revolution: Romanticism and National Projects in Nineteenth-Century Haiti.” PhD diss., University of Pittsburgh, 2008.

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    Study of 19th-century Romantic poetry in Haiti. The author challenges the claims that this literature adopts a mimetic relationship with French literature.

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Bibliographies

Hoffmann 1992 provides the only bibliography devoted entirely to Haitian literature that includes works from the 19th century. Hoffmann 1984 includes a bibliographic section with abundant references on late-19th-century Haitian literature.

  • Hoffmann, Léon-François. Essays on Haitian Literature. Washington, DC: Three Continents, 1984.

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    This compilation of essays includes an extensive bibliography dealing with 19th-century Haitian literature. Some of these references are particularly useful to understand the early reception of Haitian novels.

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  • Hoffmann, Léon-François. Bibliographie des études littéraires Haïtiennes, 1804–1984. Universités Francophones. Vanves, France: EDICEF, 1992.

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    This is an excellent bibliographical resource that includes both a primary and secondary bibliographies on several 19th-century authors.

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The Romantic School

Haitian Romanticism yielded numerous works of poetry but only a small number of novels. These may have been uneven in literary quality but are considered, nevertheless, founding texts of historical value. Admittedly, the poetry had already exhibited originality in its appropriation and transformation of European aesthetic models. Such was not the case of the novels, however, which were characterized by their frequent borrowings from French Romanticism. Only three authors can be considered in this initial phase: Emeric Bergeaud, Demesvar Delorme, and Louis J. Janvier. There is no in-depth study of this period, although Dolcé, et al. 1983 (cited in Cultural History) offers valuable background information. Also, while working exclusively with poetry, Reinsel 2008 (cited in Dissertations) provides an excellent historical context.

Emeric Bergeaud

Emeric Bergeaud (b. 1818–d. 1858) was the first Haitian novelist. Born in Cayes, he died in exile after participating in a revolt against President Soulouque. He also served as secretary to Jerome Maximilien Borgella, his uncle. Written in exile and published posthumously in 1859, Stella is Bergeaud’s only known work, but it stood as the first Haitian novel (a recent edition, Bergeaud 2009, is cited here). A general overview of Bergeaud’s work can be found in most literary histories, although they all tend to be summaries without a larger consideration of its significance beyond the obvious fact of being the first Haitian novel ever published. Berrou and Pompilus 1975, and Gouraige 1982 are examples of the latter. Hoffmann 1984 provides the first socio-critical approach to Stella, exploring the importance of this novel in the context of 19th-century Haitian literature. Biloa 2010 is the first to explore this novel in relation to “brother” topics such as race, sexuality, national literature, politics, and culture.

  • Bergeaud, Emeric. Stella. Geneva, Switzerland: Zoé, 2009.

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    Follows the struggle of two brothers, Romulus and Remus, in their pursuit of freedom and unity. The events narrated directly relate to several major events in the unfolding of the Haitian Revolution. Until the third French edition, Stella was unavailable for over one and a half centuries. Originally published as Stella: Avec un avertissement de l’auteur et une préface de Beaubrun Ardouin (Paris: E. Dentu, 1859).

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  • Berrou, Raphaël, and Pradel Pompilus. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne illustrée par les textes. Port-au-Prince: Editions Caraibes, 1975.

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    Devotes one chapter to Bergeaud, briefly describing his life and then proceeding to discuss Stella in some detail. The analysis is, nevertheless, more paraphrasing of the narrative than a critical exploration.

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  • Biloa, Onana M. Der Sklavenaufstand von Haiti: Ethnische Differenz und Humanitätsideale in der Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts. Cologne: Böhlau, 2010.

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    Biloa’s study is one of the most up-to-date critical approaches to Bergeaud’s novel and the 19th century in general. The author explores the significance of race and ethnicity in this early work of fiction, while considering the complexities of nation-building right after Haitian independence.

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  • Gouraige, Ghislain. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne (de l’indépendance à nos jours). Port-au-Prince: Editions de l’Action Sociale, 1982.

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    Briefly connects Bergeaud’s allegorical narrative to the medieval tradition and, on passing, mentions the racial politics around the time of the novel’s publication.

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  • Hoffmann, Léon-François. Essays on Haitian Literature. Washington, DC: Three Continents, 1984.

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    Hoffmann publishes here one of the first essays on Bergeaud that moves away from the traditional paraphrasing of the narrative. He rightly connects the Stella to the most important moments of the Haitian Revolution.

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Démesvar Delorme

Démesvar Delorme (b. 1831–d. 1901) was the author of numerous political essays. Born in Cap-Haïtien, he had begun his career as a teacher before entering the realm of politics. He was elected deputy in 1862, 1867, and 1871. After his role in the National Assembly, he played an important role as a journalist and diplomat. He died in Paris on 25 December 1901. This double vocation comprising politics and culture is evident in his book Théoriciens au pouvoir published in 1870. He is also the author of two novels (Delorme 1872 and Delorme 1877), both of which take place in contexts far removed from Haiti. A general overview of his work can be found in several literary histories. Gouraige 1982 explains the limitations of his narrative for choosing to ignore Haitian topics. Berrou and Pompilus 1975 studies his work as theoretician and novelist. Trouillot 1970 offers the most interesting reading of Démesvar’s work by explaining the contradictions between his exoticist narrative and his nationalist political commitment. Nicholls 1996 provides an excellent background on Delorme’s participation in Haitian politics.

  • Berrou, Raphaël, and Pradel Pompilus. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne illustrée par les textes. Port-au-Prince: Editions Caraibes, 1975.

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    Provides a descriptive but comprehensive revision of Delorme’s writing and includes a portrait of this Delorme as well.

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  • Delorme, Démesvar. Francesca, les jeux du sort. Paris: E. Dentu, 1872.

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    Francesca takes place in Italy and Turkey during the Renaissance. It follows the tragic destiny of Djem, a prince who is dethroned by Mahomet. The prince finds refuge in the Vatican and seeks support from European kings. He falls in love with Francesca, but Sylvio, her jealous cousin, poisons him. Francesca then kills her cousin and takes her own life. No other editions are available.

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  • Delorme, Démesvar. Le damné. Paris: Challamel Aîné, 1877.

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    The story takes place between Switzerland and Italy, during the kingdom of Francis I of France. It follows the turbulent life of Ulrick de Krussnacht, a young man who abandons his first love, the daughter of a fisherman, in order to seek fortune. Le damné follows the models of Goethe, Hugo, and Dumas. No other editions are available.

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  • Gouraige, Ghislain. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne (de l’indépendance à nos jours). Port-au-Prince: Editions de l’Action Sociale, 1982.

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    Considers Démesvar’s decision to be “detached from Haitian realities” (p. 30) as a sign of his independent spirit. Also acknowledges his deep commitment to politics.

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  • Nicholls, David. From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti. Warwick University Caribbean Studies. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1996.

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    Offers fascinating historical context, often referring to Delorme’s participation in politics.

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  • Trouillot, Henock. Demesvar Delorme ou introduction à une sociologie de la littérature Haïtienne. Port-au-Prince: Les Ateliers Fardin, 1970.

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    Explores the life and work of Delorme, seeing beyond the limitations of his novels. His decision to write stories in exotic settings is explained as the direct result of the postcolonial cultural order and difficulties in finding a readership in 19th-century Haiti. Paradoxically, his work in the political arena would create the conditions for the introduction of Haitian themes in literature. Trouillot expands on this contradiction.

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Louis J. Janvier

Louis J. Janvier (b. 1855–d. 1911) was born in Port-au-Prince and developed an impressive intellectual and academic life. He received titles in medicine, law and administration, and economics and finances. He had a prolific life as a diplomat and is the author of two novels: Janvier 1884 narrates the misfortune of those who suffered the consequences of the civil wars. Une chercheuse (Janvier 1888) is a story of love and misfortune. A brief overview of Janvier’s work can be found in several literary histories. Vaval 1971 celebrates Janvier’s writing, noting that his medical experience helped to enhance the psychology of his characters. Gouraige 1982, on the contrary, offers a harsh look, suggesting that his writing style is inferior and that his characters lack psychological depth. Nicholls 1996 offers the best historical background on Janvier by situating his intellectual work in the context of Haitian racial politics. Janvier 1979 provides a unique opportunity to understand the author’s deep desire to defend his nation from racist and demeaning representations.

  • Berrou, Raphaël, and Pradel Pompilus. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne illustrée par les textes. Port-au-Prince: Editions Caraibes, 1975.

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    Provides a description of Janvier’s life and writing. Offers an interesting account of his participation on literary and intellectual debates. Includes a portrait of this author.

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  • Gouraige, Ghislain. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne (de l’indépendance à nos jours). Port-au-Prince: Editions de l’Action Sociale, 1982.

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    Briefly reviews Janvier’s Une chercheuse (1889) and concludes that it lacks literary value.

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  • Janvier, Louis Joseph. Le vieux piquet: Scènes de la vie Haïtienne. Paris: A. Parent, 1884.

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    Brief novel that provides interesting insight into the civil strife of 19th-century Haiti.

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  • Janvier, Louis Joseph. Une chercheuse. Paris: C. Marpon and E. Flammarion, 1888.

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    Recounts the unfortunate life of a wealthy and beautiful woman seeking love and joy but who finds only disillusion and despair. First married to the Marquis of Aimery de Foncine, the protagonist Mimose later embarks on a series of amorous adventures that eventually bring misfortune and death. She finally finds Edriss Gazy, an Egyptian student who is, unfortunately, killed in his native country.

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  • Janvier, Louis Joseph. La République d’Haïti et ses visiteurs (1840–1882). Port-au-Prince: Éditions Fardin, 1979.

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    This book can be read as Janvier’s response to the various misrepresentations of Haiti and its people. The essay provides a valuable insight into the author’s intellectual goals and the concern of intellectuals of this time.

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  • Nicholls, David. From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti. Warwick University Caribbean Studies. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1996.

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    Offers the best historical account of Janvier’s participation in Haitian politics. Nicholls explains the writer’s opposition to the Roman Catholic Church, his role in the debate over the “black legend” (dealing with the role of blacks in the history of Haiti), and his fights against foreign intervention in Haiti.

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  • Vaval, Duraciné. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne: Ou, “l’âme noire.” Nendeln, Lichtenstein: Kraus, 1971.

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    Originally published in 1933, this book was reprinted in 1971 and 1986. Offers one of the first comprehensive reviews of the history of Haitian literature from 1804 to the 1930s. Although the critical approach might be dated, the book is useful for providing an in-depth overview of movements and authors, along with extensive quotes from the works under consideration.

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The National School and the Generation of La Ronde

Toward the end of the 19th century, novelists begin embracing the journal La Ronde, sharing not only a medium to distribute their writings but also a common literary vision. Some of their goals were the following: to improve the reputation of the country in face of blatant racist and Eurocentric discourse; to criticize social and political habits they deemed reprehensible; and to provide realistic descriptions of Haiti and its people. Six authors can be considered within this initial period, which expands into the 20th century: Amédée Brun, Jules Domingues, Fernand Hibbert, Antoine Innocent, Justin Lhérisson, and Frédéric Marcelin.

Amédée Brun

Amédée Brun (b. 1868–d. 1896) was born in Jacmel into a French family that had settled in Haiti. After studying law in Paris, he returned to Port-au-Prince and taught at the local school of law. He is the author of two novels: Brun 1895 is his first, and it is one of the few 19th-century narratives to engage with the historical events of the Haitian Revolution. Brun 1909, his next and last novel, is a rather typical Romantic narrative. Brun died at age 28. A general overview of his work can be found in several literary histories: Vaval 1971 (see Literary Histories and Critical Essays) offers only a brief biographical sketch. Gouraige 1982 summarizes his novels and acknowledges his importance in the creation of a national literary discourse.

  • Brun, Amédée. Deux amours. Port-au-Prince: V.J. Chenet, 1895.

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    The narrative of Deux amours pertains directly to the events of the Haitian Revolution. Danielle is the daughter of a plantation owner in Saint-Domingue. Two very different men love her: a young slave, Jean-Louis, and the plantation overseer, Henry Lermant. Both rivals fight on the same side during the revolution. Henry dies and Jean-Louis becomes a general, receiving Dessalines’s approval to marry Danielle. No other editions are available.

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  • Brun, Amédée. Sans pardon. Port-au-Prince: Impr. de L’Abeille, 1909.

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    This is the story of Amélie Peyronnet, who, after being abandoned by her husband, finds comfort in the love of a young student named Jean Mauriet. The former husband visits their son Pierre and, becoming jealous, fights with Jean. The son sides with his father but dies after fighting a duel with his mother’s lover. No recent editions are available.

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  • Gouraige, Ghislain. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne (de l’indépendance à nos jours). Port-au-Prince: Editions de l’Action Sociale, 1982.

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    Explains that, in spite of Brun’s stylistic shortcomings, he is successful in bringing new themes into the National school.

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Jules Domingue

Jules Domingue (b. 1862–d. 1939) was born in Port-au-Prince and authored only one novel, a sentimental story titled Les deux amours d’Adrien (Domingue 1902). Gouraige 1982 explains that despite this minimal literary production, Domingue is important in his successful introduction of a Romantic story into the literary landscape of the National school.

  • Domingue, Jules. Les deux amours d’Adrien, ou l’hérédité psychologique, moeurs Haïtiennes. Corbeil, France: Impr. de É. Crété, 1902.

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    This sentimental novel recounts the story of a young Haitian, Adrien Laurentin, who learns of the death of his parents while in Algeria. Upon returning to Port-au-Prince, he falls in love with Lélia Ribot, who dies before they marry. A second love also ends in tragedy when the opportunistic parents of his beloved Ninette Vallade impose obstacles to their marriage.

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  • Gouraige, Ghislain. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne (de l’indépendance à nos jours). Port-au-Prince: Editions de l’Action Sociale, 1982.

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    Explains that with the exception of Fernand Hibbert, no other representative of the National school attempted to work with the sentimental genre. For this reason, as well as for his literary style, Domingue deserves critical attention.

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Fernand Hibbert

Fernand Hibbert (b. 1873–d. 1928) was born in the town of Miragoâne and studied in Port-au-Prince and Paris. Upon returning to his country, he took jobs at the Ministry of Finances, Ministry of Exterior, and the Secretariat of Education. He was also ambassador to Havana and taught at the Lyceé Pétion. He is the author of four novels, all of which were published in the first half of the 20th century. His concerns and literary models are, nevertheless, those of late-19th-century authors. Indeed, he belongs to the generation of La Ronde and is therefore considered part of the National school. Hibbert is the author of four novels: Hibbert 1905 clearly expresses the anxieties of Haitian intelligentsia regarding nation building. Hibbert 2007 and Hibbert 1974 depict the frivolity and corruption of certain sectors of Haitian society. Hibbert and Mirville 1998 is the Haitian Creole translation of Les Simulacres. Hibbert 1993 provides a historical account of late-19th-century struggles for power. A general overview of Hibbert’s work can be found in several literary histories. Gouraige 1982 considers him to be an excellent example of the National school in his incisive portrait of Haitian society.

  • Gouraige, Ghislain. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne (de l’indépendance à nos jours). Port-au-Prince: Editions de l’Action Sociale, 1982.

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    Provides a detailed revision of Hibbert’s books by positively evaluating their literary qualities and their success in portraying Haitian society.

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  • Hibbert, Fernand. Séna: Scènes de la vie Haitienne. Port-au-Prince: Impr. de L’Abeille, 1905.

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    Recounts the story of a devious and cunning senator. After a trip to France that transforms his character, he becomes a responsible and committed citizen. He decides to contribute to the advancement of his country but becomes suspect of those in power and is eventually thrown in prison, where he dies. A Spanish translation is available: Séna (La Habana: Casa de las Américas, 1977).

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  • Hibbert, Fernand. Les simulacres: L’aventure de M. Hellénius Caton. Port-au-Prince: Atelier Fardin, 1974.

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    Originally published in 1923, this novel might be outside the chronological framework for this entry, but it is nevertheless appropriate in terms of the theme it addresses. It recounts the story of the politician Héllénus Caton, who befriends Pablo Alcantara, a dishonest Cuban who tries to steal his wife after fooling him with offers of wealth. This story responds to the unrest that the Haitian republic experienced during the process of nation building, right after independence.

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  • Hibbert, Fernand. Romulus. Port-au-Prince: Editions Fardin, 1993.

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    This is a historical novel about the struggle that took place in Miragoâne in 1883. The entire city was destroyed in this confrontation between exiled liberals and government troops. The hero is Romulus, a commander from that town who, after being removed from his post, rises against President Salomon.

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  • Hibbert, Fernand. Les Thazar. Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street, 2007.

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    Originally published in 1907, this novel tells the story of Madame Thazar, a greedy and ambitious woman who stops at nothing to keep up appearances. After her husband is ruined, she forces her daughter Cilotte to marry a man of fortune: a white German known as Mr. Schlieden.

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  • Hibbert, Fernand, and Ernst Mirville. Similak: Istwa Tribilasyon M. Elenis Katon. Koleksyon Koukouy. Miami, FL: Atelye Aksyon Altètiv, 1998.

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    This is a translation of Hibbert’s novel to Haitian Creole.

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Antoine Innocent

Antoine Innocent (b. 1874–d. 1960) was born in Port-au-Prince and attended the Lycée Pétion; later he became a professor at that same institution. He was a member of “L’œuvre,” a literary and theatrical association. His only novel is Mimola, originally published in 1906 (Innocent 2006). A general overview of Innocent’s work can be found in the literary histories listed below: Gouraige 1982 notices the originality of this author’s only novel, while Vaval 1971 expands on its religious significance.

  • Gouraige, Ghislain. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne (de l’indépendance à nos jours). Port-au-Prince: Editions de l’Action Sociale, 1982.

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    Explains that the national novel took an original turn with Innocent. While other members of this movement devoted all their energies to describe and criticize society, Innocent opts for a story that looks closely into the rites of voodoo.

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  • Innocent, Antoine. Mimola ou l’histoire d’une cassette. Collection L’Intemporel. Port-au-Prince: Presses Nationales d’Haïti, 2006.

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    Mimola is an important novel in that it addresses the world of Haitian religiosity. The protagonist is the granddaughter of Tante Rosalie, an African slave brought to Saint-Domingue during the colonial period. The story unfolds as Mimola experiences a series of nervous crises that find no cure using Western medicine.

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  • Vaval, Duraciné. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne: Ou, “l’âme noire.” Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus, 1971.

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    Valval devotes significant space to Innocent and his novel Mimola. Vaval also shows deep interest in the representation of the syncretic rites of voodoo that appear for the first time in the Haitian novel. Nevertheless, underneath such interest one can sense uneasiness in the critic, who might be driven by a Catholic zeal in face of African spiritual traditions.

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Justin Lhérisson

Justin Lhérisson (b. 1873–d. 1907) was born in Port-au-Prince and died at the young age of 34. He was an active collaborator in the journal La Ronde and expressed many of the same concerns and formal traits as the National school. Lhérisson published his first poems at age 14; then he went on to write two novels, as well as the lyrics of Haiti’s national anthem, “La Dessalinienne.” A general overview of Lhérisson’s work can be found in several literary histories. Lhérisson 2005a is a novel about the miseries experienced by peasants and the abuses of the elites. Lhérisson 2005b, his second novel, describes the negative effects of national politics. Vaval 1971 and Gouraige 1982 provide good overviews and emphasize Lhérisson’s commitment to portray the realities of Haitian society.

  • Gouraige, Ghislain. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne (de l’indépendance à nos jours). Port-au-Prince: Editions de l’Action Sociale, 1982.

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    Explains that Lhérisson is successful in combining humor with “more elevated” aims such as showing the frivolity and the prejudice of Haitian society.

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  • Lhérisson, Justin. Zoune chez sa ninnaine: Fan’m gain sept sauts pou li passé. Port-au-Prince: Editions Presses Nationales d’Haïti, 2005a.

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    Originally published in 1906, this novel recounts the story of a young peasant who is raised by her godmother, the wealthy Madame Boyote. When the young peasant grows and emerges as a beautiful woman, Colonel Cadet Jacques becomes interested in her: so his wife, Madame Boyette, decides to throw her out of her house.

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  • Lhérisson, Justin. Famille des Pitite-Caille. Port-au-Prince: Presses Nationales d’Haiti, 2005b.

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    Originally published in 1905, this novel tells the story of the Pitite-Caille family and their rise to wealth on the fortune-telling abilities of Velléda, the mother. But then the family loses everything during the Haitian political turmoil.

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  • Vaval, Duraciné. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne: Ou, “l’âme noire.” Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus, 1971.

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    Questions the stylistic quality of Lhérisson’s prose but notices his ability to capture the idiosyncratic aspects of Creole culture.

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Frédéric Marcelin

Frédéric Marcelin (b. 1848–d. 1917) was born in Port-au-Prince and sent to France at age 12 for study at the Lycée St.-Louis. He returned a few years later to attend the Ecole Polymatique and then studied law at age 15. He was elected to the National Assembly at age 26. Marcelin was a prolific author, writing numerous essays on politics and economics during the second half of the 19th century. He published his novels at the beginning of the 20th century: Thémistocle Epaminondas Labasterre (originally published in 1901; the edition cited here is Marcelin 2005a), La Vengeance de mamá (originally published in 1902; the edition cited here is Marcelin 1997), Marilisse (originally published in 1903; Marcelin 2005b is cited in this section), La confession de Bazoute (1909), and Au gré du souvenir (1913). A general overview of Marcelin’s work can be found in many literary histories, as he was one of the most prolific authors of his generation. Gouraige 1948 stresses Marcelin’s commitment to realism. Gouraige 1982 provides an orderly revisiting of all his novels and explains his concern with politics and morals. Marcelin 1984 offers a fascinating window into the author’s understanding of his own work. Hoffmann 2006 offers the most comprehensive and up-to-date reading.

  • Gouraige, Ghislain. “Frédéric Marcelin, peintre d’une époque.” M.A. thesis, Université Laval, 1948.

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    Studies Marcelin’s commitment to the description of Haiti’s realities.

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  • Gouraige, Ghislain. Histoire de la littérature Haïtienne (de l’indépendance à nos jours). Port-au-Prince: Editions de l’Action Sociale, 1982.

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    Devotes several pages to a detailed discussion of Marcelin’s novels and emphasizes his concern for Haiti’s political misfortune.

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  • Hoffmann, Léon-François. Frédéric Marcelin: Un Haïtien se penche sur son pays. Montreal: Mémoire d’Encrier, 2006.

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    The first in-depth book on the work of this important writer. Hoffmann provides a detailed biographical account of Marcelin’s life, as well as a solid exploration of his writing.

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  • Marcelin, Frédéric. Autour de deux romans. Port-au-Prince: Editions Fardin, 1984.

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    First published in 1903, this interesting essay provides insight into Marcelin’s writing. The author reflects on his own fiction writing, but in doing so, he also voices his views on the real-life issues faced by the Haitian nation as well.

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  • Marcelin, Frédéric. La vengeance de mama: Roman. Nouveaux Classiques Haïtiens. Port-au-Prince: Éditions Fardin, 1997.

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    Published in 1902, this novel can be read as a sequel to Thémistocle-Epaminondas Labasterre. The story revolves around Zulma Corneille (Mama), former fiancée of the young idealist Epaminondas. She decides to avenge the death of his loved one; and knowing Télémaque’s desire to conquer her, she devises a plan to poison the even more powerful politician. She succeeds, and revolution follows.

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  • Marcelin, Frédéric. Thémistocle Epaminondas Labasterre: Petit récit Haïtien. Collection L’Intemporel. Port-au-Prince: Presses Nationales d’Haïti, 2005a.

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    Originally published in 1901, this novel tells the story of a young idealist who helps a promising politician through his writing. After a revolution, the politician becomes minister of the interior and head of the police. When the young man becomes disenchanted and organizes a protest, he is arrested. He dies holding the Haitian Constitution.

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  • Marcelin, Frédéric. Marilisse. Collection L’Intemporel. Port-au-Prince: Éditions Presses Nationales d’Haïti, 2005b.

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    Originally published in 1903, this novel focuses on the poor and disadvantaged in Haitian society. Marilisse is a cook who falls in love with a bohemian musician working in the National Palace. After discovering his infidelity, she breaks up with him and then must raise their daughter, Cléore.

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LAST MODIFIED: 10/28/2011

DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780199766581-0001

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