The Impact of Systemic Racism on Latinxs’ Experiences with Health Care
- LAST REVIEWED: 27 October 2021
- LAST MODIFIED: 27 October 2021
- DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195389678-0306
- LAST REVIEWED: 27 October 2021
- LAST MODIFIED: 27 October 2021
- DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195389678-0306
Introduction
Race is a social construct that categorizes individuals by markers of difference, including phenotype, nationality, ethnicity, language, or immigration status. Racism is a system that allocates valued collective resources based on race. Racism is maintained by the idea that the white race is superior to other races and therefore has preferential access to resources for advancement. Systemic racism upholds, perpetuates, and justifies racism through institutions, including the health-care system. Systemic racism in health care leads to negative health outcomes for Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC). The United States Office of Management and Budget (OMB) defines Hispanic, Latina/o, Latinx as an ethnicity that can be of any race. Latinxs experience systemic racism in the US health-care system at four levels: the (1) policy, (2) geographic, (3) organizational, and (4) interpersonal levels. First, anti-immigrant policies deter Latinxs from accessing health care, thus perpetuating health and mental health disparities. Second, immigrant enforcement policies differ by state, and access to health-care resources depends on where Latinxs live (e.g., urban versus rural, traditional enclave versus new destination). Third, systemic racism is embedded in health-care organizations, compromising the quality of care that Latinxs receive. Finally, some Latinxs experience racism and discrimination at the interpersonal level when interacting with health-care providers. This bibliography consists of peer-reviewed articles that highlight the impact of systemic racism among Latinxs at these four levels. The use of the term “Latinx” is used throughout this bibliography to be explicitly inclusive of multiple genders that are typically not represented by other terms. However, we advise that those working with Latinx populations (clinicians, researchers) use the preferred terms by which individuals identify.
Systemic Racism at the Policy Level
Racially biased immigration policies have been shown to perpetuate historical inequities, specifically in the health-care field. Bruzelius and Baum 2019 and Philbin, et al. 2018 examine how nativist approaches to immigration policy (e.g., anti-immigrant executive orders) play an integral role in maintaining entrenched health and health-care disparities among Latinxs. Federal policies, such as the Affordable Care Act, have shown promise in increasing access to health care for Latinxs, but the effect has not been uniform across Latinx subgroups and has decreased over time (Alcalá, et al. 2017; Rosales, et al. 2021). Perreira and Pedroza 2019 reviews restrictive state immigration policies, such as Arizona’s SB 1070, that legitimate racism and restrict immigrants from receiving the same services as US-born individuals. It also shows that these restrictive state policies have deterred Latinxs, regardless of immigration status, from accessing and using health care, which negatively impacts their mental health status. Ayón 2020 contributes to this body of literature in a study that found that such restrictive policies heighten stress levels among Latinx parents. Pedraza, et al. 2017 as well as Vargas, et al. 2019 also reports delayed access to health care and negative mental health effects among Latinxs, regardless of migratory status, and individuals who knew someone who was deported. Anti-immigrant policies have a particular negative effect among the most vulnerable segments of the Latinx population, namely children and older adults. For instance, Cholera, et al. 2021 found that Latinx youth cancelation and no-show rates of health-care visits were substantially impacted by anti-immigrant policies. According to Calvo 2020, a letter to the editor of the Journal of Gerontology in Social Work, there is an urgent need to increase attention to the impacts of Covid-19 on older Latinxs, whose health-related vulnerability and lack of health care access is exacerbated by restrictive anti-immigrant policies. Even policies not specific to immigration enforcement have disproportionately placed Latinxs at risk of higher exposure to Covid-19. More information regarding this can be found in Rodriguez-Diaz, et al. 2020.
Alcalá, H. E., J. Chen, B. A. Langellier, D. H. Roby, and A. N. Ortega. 2017. Impact of the Affordable Care Act on health care access and utilization among Latinos. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine 30.1: 52–62.
DOI: 10.3122/jabfm.2017.01.160208
The authors examine the Affordable Care Act’s impact among Latinxs based on country of origin, language, and immigration status. Puerto Ricans experienced the greater gains in health-care access after the ACA. By contrast, the ACA had a limited impact on improving Latinxs’ access to health care based on language and citizenship status.
Ayón, C. 2020. State-level immigration policy context and health: How are Latinx immigrant parents faring? Social Work Research 44.2: 110–122.
DOI: 10.1093/swr/svaa003
The author of this study uncovers a strong relationship between restrictive immigration policies and high stress levels among immigrant parents. Practice implications include working with families to address concerns about how immigration policies affect their children, including fears about family separation.
Bruzelius, E., and A. Baum. 2019. The mental health of Hispanic/Latino Americans following national immigration policy changes: United States, 2014–2018. American Journal of Public Health 109.12: 1786–1788.
The authors present national findings of how the aggressive enforcement of anti-immigrant policies impacts the mental health of Latinxs in the United States. The public health effects of aggressive immigration enforcement are discussed.
Calvo, R. 2020. Older Latinx immigrants and Covid-19: A call to action. Journal of Gerontological Social Work 63.6–7: 592–594.
DOI: 10.1080/01634372.2020.1800884
The author argues that is imperative to pay attention to the effect of Covid-19 on older Latinxs, particularly regarding issues stemming from entrenched systemic inequities. Actions for policymakers and providers of services to design services tailored to this population are discussed.
Chen, J., M. J. O’Brien, J. Mennis, et al. 2015. Latino population growth and hospital uncompensated care in California. American Journal of Public Health 105.8: 1710–1717.
This study investigates the relationship between uncompensated care and hospital use in areas with a high concentration of Latinxs. Findings reveal the need for improving health-care resources for Latinx communities that do not have access to health coverage through the Affordable Care Act (ACA).
Cholera, R., S. I. Ranapurwala, J. Linton, et al. 2021. Health care use among Latinx children after 2017 executive actions on immigration. Pediatrics 147.2: e20200272.
The authors examine the effect of anti-immigrant executive actions on Latinx children’s health-care use. Types of restrictive policies, their impact on uninsured Latinx children, and consequences for the health care of this vulnerable population are discussed.
Pedraza, F. I., V. C. Nichols, and A. M. LeBrón. 2017. Cautious citizenship: The deterring effect of immigration issue salience on health care use and bureaucratic interactions among Latino US citizens. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 42.5: 925–960.
This article shows that discussing the topic of immigration during the provision of health care deters Latinx citizens from booking further appointments because they perceive the health-care setting as unsafe.
Perreira, K. M., and J. M. Pedroza. 2019. Policies of exclusion: Implications for the health of immigrants and their children. Annual Review of Public Health 40:147–166.
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-044115
This comprehensive review focuses on how federal, state, and local laws and administrative practices impact Latinx immigrants’ access to public programs, including health care.
Philbin, M. M., M. Flake, M. L. Hatzenbuehler, and J. S. Hirsch. 2018. State-level immigration and immigrant-focused policies as drivers of Latino health disparities in the United States. Social Science & Medicine 199:29–38.
DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.04.007
This literature review summarizes evidence on state-level immigration policies that affect Latino health. Potential links between policy and health outcomes, and areas for further research about the relationship between policy and health outcomes, are discussed.
Rodriguez-Diaz, C. E., V. Guilamo-Ramos, L. Mena, et al. 2020. Risk for COVID-19 infection and death among Latinos in the United States: examining heterogeneity in transmission dynamics. Annals of Epidemiology 52:46–53.
DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2020.07.007
This quantitative study examined differential Covid-19 diagnoses and deaths based on Latinx demographic profiles, such as county population, percentage of Latinxs, age, health insurance coverage, and language. Authors discuss the implications of structural factors that provide context to the findings, including executive orders.
Rosales, R., D. Takeuchi, and R. Calvo. 2021. After the Affordable Care Act: the effects of the health safety net and the Medicaid expansion on Latinxs’ use of behavioral healthcare in the US. Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research 48.2: 183–198.
DOI: 10.1007/s11414-020-09715-3
This article investigates the impact of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) on US Latinxs’ behavioral health use. Authors observed a short-term increase of behavioral health among Latinxs after the ACA that was not sustained over time, except in safety net organizations in Medicaid expansion states. Policy and practice implications to provide sustained support to safety net organizations are presented.
Vargas, E. D., M. Juárez, G. R. Sanchez, and M. Livaudais. 2019. Latinos’ connections to immigrants: How knowing a deportee impacts Latino health. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45.15: 2971–2988.
DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.2018.1447365
This study uses stress process theory to investigate how personal connections to a deportee is associated with a heightened need for mental health services. Authors discuss implications in light of current anti-immigration policies.
Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. Please subscribe or login.
How to Subscribe
Oxford Bibliographies Online is available by subscription and perpetual access to institutions. For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here.
Article
- Abolitionist Perspectives in Social Work
- Abortion
- Adolescent Depression
- Adolescent Pregnancy
- Adolescents
- Adoption
- Adoption Home Study Assessments
- Adult Protective Services in the United States
- African Americans
- Aging
- Aging out of foster care
- Aging, Physical Health and
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Problems
- Alcohol and Drug Problems, Prevention of Adolescent and Yo...
- Alcohol Problems: Practice Interventions
- Alcohol Use Disorder
- Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias
- Anti-Oppressive Practice
- Asian Americans
- Asian-American Youth
- Assessment
- Autism Spectrum Disorders
- Baccalaureate Social Workers
- Behavioral Health
- Behavioral Social Work Practice
- Bereavement Practice
- Bisexuality
- Brief Therapies in Social Work: Task-Centered Model and So...
- Bullying and Social Work Intervention
- Canadian Social Welfare, History of
- Case Management in Mental Health in the United States
- Central American Migration to the United States
- Child Maltreatment Prevention
- Child Neglect and Emotional Maltreatment
- Child Poverty
- Child Sexual Abuse
- Child Welfare
- Child Welfare and Child Protection in Europe, History of
- Child Welfare and Parents with Intellectual and/or Develop...
- Child Welfare Effectiveness
- Child Welfare, Immigration and
- Child Welfare Practice with LGBTQ Youth and Families
- Children
- Children of Incarcerated Parents
- Christianity and Social Work
- Chronic Illness
- Clinical Social Work Practice with Adult Lesbians
- Clinical Social Work Practice with Males
- Cognitive Behavior Therapies with Diverse and Stressed Pop...
- Cognitive Processing Therapy
- Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
- Community
- Community Development
- Community Policing
- Community-Based Participatory Research
- Community-Needs Assessment
- Comparative Social Work
- Computational Social Welfare: Applying Data Science in Soc...
- Conflict Resolution
- Council on Social Work Education
- Counseling Female Offenders
- Criminal Justice
- Crisis Interventions
- Cultural Competence and Ethnic Sensitive Practice
- Culture, Ethnicity, Substance Use, and Substance Use Disor...
- Dementia Care
- Dementia Care, Ethical Aspects of
- Depression and Cancer
- Development and Infancy (Birth to Age Three)
- Differential Response in Child Welfare
- Digital Storytelling for Social Work Interventions
- Direct Practice in Social Work
- Disabilities
- Disability and Disability Culture
- Disasters
- Divorce
- Domestic Violence Among Immigrants
- Early Pregnancy and Parenthood Among Child Welfare–Involve...
- Eating Disorders
- Ecological Framework
- Economic Evaluation
- Elder Mistreatment
- End-of-Life Decisions
- Epigenetics for Social Workers
- Ethical Issues in Social Work and Technology
- Ethics and Values in Social Work
- Ethnicity
- European Institutions and Social Work
- European Union, Justice and Home Affairs in the
- Evidence-based Social Work Practice
- Evidence-based Social Work Practice: Finding Evidence
- Evidence-based Social Work Practice: Issues, Controversies...
- Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs
- Families
- Families with Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual Parents
- Family Caregiving
- Family Group Conferencing
- Family Policy
- Family Services
- Family Therapy
- Family Violence
- Fathering Among Families Served By Child Welfare
- Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
- Field Education
- Financial Literacy and Social Work
- Financing Health-Care Delivery in the United States
- Forensic Social Work
- Foster Care
- Foster care and siblings
- Gay Men
- Gender, Violence, and Trauma in Immigration Detention in t...
- Generalist Practice and Advanced Generalist Practice
- Grounded Theory
- Group Work
- Group Work across Populations, Challenges, and Settings
- Group Work, Research, Best Practices, and Evidence-based
- Harm Reduction
- Health Care Reform
- Health Disparities
- Health Social Work
- History of Social Work and Social Welfare, 1900–1950
- History of Social Work and Social Welfare, 1950-1980
- History of Social Work and Social Welfare, pre-1900
- History of Social Work from 1980-2014
- History of Social Work in China
- History of Social Work in Northern Ireland
- History of Social Work in the Republic of Ireland
- History of Social Work in the United Kingdom
- HIV/AIDS
- HIV/AIDS and Children
- HIV/AIDS Prevention with Adolescents
- Homelessness
- Homelessness: Ending Homelessness as a Grand Challenge
- Homelessness Outside the United States
- Housing
- Human Needs
- Human Trafficking, Victims of
- Immigrant Integration in the United States
- Immigrant Policy in the United States
- Immigrants and Refugees
- Immigrants and Refugees: Evidence-based Social Work Practi...
- Immigration and Health Disparities
- Immigration and Intimate Partner Violence
- Immigration and Poverty
- Immigration and Spirituality
- Immigration and Substance Use
- Immigration and Trauma
- Impact of Emerging Technology in Social Work Practice
- Impaired Professionals
- Implementation Science and Practice
- Indigenous Peoples
- Individual Placement and Support (IPS) Supported Employmen...
- In-home Child Welfare Services
- Intergenerational Transmission of Maltreatment
- International Human Trafficking
- International Social Welfare
- International Social Work
- International Social Work and Education
- International Social Work and Social Welfare in Southern A...
- Internet and Video Game Addiction
- Interpersonal Psychotherapy
- Intervention with Traumatized Populations
- Interviewing
- Intimate-Partner Violence
- Juvenile Justice
- Kinship Care
- Korean Americans
- Latinos and Latinas
- Law, Social Work and the
- LGBTQ Populations and Social Work
- Life Span
- Mainland European Social Work, History of
- Major Depressive Disorder
- Management and Administration in Social Work
- Maternal Mental Health
- Measurement, Scales, and Indices
- Medical Illness
- Men: Health and Mental Health Care
- Mental Health
- Mental Health Diagnosis and the Addictive Substance Disord...
- Mental Health Needs of Older People, Assessing the
- Mental Health Services from 1990 to 2023
- Mental Illness: Children
- Mental Illness: Elders
- Meta-analysis
- Microskills
- Middle East and North Africa, International Social Work an...
- Military Social Work
- Mixed Methods Research
- Moral distress and injury in social work
- Motivational Interviewing
- Multiculturalism
- Native Americans
- Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders
- Neighborhood Social Cohesion
- Neuroscience and Social Work
- Nicotine Dependence
- Occupational Social Work
- Organizational Development and Change
- Pain Management
- Palliative Care
- Palliative Care: Evolution and Scope of Practice
- Pandemics and Social Work
- Parent Training
- Participatory Community Based Research
- Personalization
- Person-in-Environment
- Philosophy of Science and Social Work
- Physical Disabilities
- Podcasts and Social Work
- Police Social Work
- Political Social Work in the United States
- Positive Youth Development
- Postmodernism and Social Work
- Postsecondary Education Experiences and Attainment Among Y...
- Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
- Poverty
- Practice Interventions and Aging
- Practice Interventions with Adolescents
- Practice Research
- Primary Prevention in the 21st Century
- Productive Engagement of Older Adults
- Profession, Social Work
- Program Development and Grant Writing
- Promoting Smart Decarceration as a Grand Challenge
- Psychiatric Rehabilitation
- Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Theory
- Psychoeducation
- Psychometrics
- Psychopathology and Social Work Practice
- Psychopharmacology and Social Work Practice
- Psychosocial Framework
- Psychosocial Intervention with Women
- Psychotherapy and Social Work
- Qualitative Research
- Race and Racism
- Randomized Controlled Trials in Social Work
- Readmission Policies in Europe
- Redefining Police Interactions with People Experiencing Me...
- Refugee Children, Unaccompanied Immigrant and
- Rehabilitation
- Religiously Affiliated Agencies
- Reproductive Health
- Research
- Research Ethics
- Restorative Justice
- Risk Assessment in Child Protection Services
- Risk Management in Social Work
- Rural Social Work in China
- Rural Social Work Practice
- School Social Work
- School Violence
- School-Based Delinquency Prevention
- Services and Programs for Pregnant and Parenting Youth
- Severe and Persistent Mental Illness: Adults
- Sexual and Gender Minority Immigrants, Refugees, and Asylu...
- Sexual Assault
- Single-System Research Designs
- Social and Economic Impact of US Immigration Policies on U...
- Social Development
- Social Insurance and Social Justice
- Social Intervention Research
- Social Justice and Social Work
- Social Movements
- Social Planning
- Social Policy
- Social Policy in Denmark
- Social Security in the United States (OASDHI)
- Social Work and Islam
- Social Work and Social Welfare in East, West, and Central ...
- Social Work and Social Welfare in Europe
- Social Work Education and Research
- Social Work Leadership
- Social Work Luminaries: Luminaries Contributing to the Cla...
- Social Work Luminaries: Luminaries contributing to the fou...
- Social Work Luminaries: Luminaries Who Contributed to Soci...
- Social Work Practice, Rare and Orphan Diseases and
- Social Work Regulation
- Social Work Research Methods
- Social Work Theory
- Social Work with Interpreters
- Solution-Focused Therapy
- Strategic Planning
- Strengths Perspective
- Strengths-Based Models in Social Work
- Suicide
- Supplemental Security Income
- Survey Research
- Sustainability: Creating Social Responses to a Changing En...
- Syrian Refugees in Turkey
- Systematic Review Methods
- Task-Centered Practice
- Technology Adoption in Social Work Education
- Technology for Social Work Interventions
- Technology, Human Relationships, and Human Interaction
- Technology in Social Work
- Terminal Illness
- Terrorism
- The Impact of Systemic Racism on Latinxs’ Experiences with...
- Transdisciplinary Science
- Translational Science and Social Work
- Transnational Perspectives in Social Work
- Transtheoretical Model of Change
- Trauma
- Trauma-Informed Care
- Triangulation
- Tribal child welfare practice in the United States
- Unions
- United States, History of Social Welfare in the
- Universal Basic Income
- Veteran Services
- Vicarious Trauma and Resilience in Social Work Practice wi...
- Vicarious Trauma Redefining PTSD
- Victim Services
- Violence
- Virtual Reality and Social Work
- Welfare State Reform in France
- Welfare State Theory
- Women and Macro Social Work Practice
- Women's Health Care
- Work and Family in the German Welfare State
- Workfare
- Workforce Development of Social Workers Pre- and Post-Empl...
- Working with Non-Voluntary and Mandated Clients
- Young and Adolescent Lesbians
- Youth at Risk
- Youth Services