Al-Jāḥiẓ

by

Thomas Hefter

• LAST MODIFIED: 17 April 2025
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0319

Introduction

Abu ʿUthman ʿAmr Ibn Bahr al-Kinani, now known by his sobriquet “al-Jahiz” (the Pop-eyed) was a Muslim theologian, anthologist, and essayist occupying an unrivalled place among Arabic prose authors for his eloquence, wit, and rhetorical inventiveness, along with the breadth of his interests and the keenness of his observations. Born in Basra c. 160/776 to an undistinguished family and apparently of Black African ancestry, he learned to read in a local Qurʾanic school. His intellectual gifts were soon recognized and he studied with the renowned philologists of the city, feeding the preoccupation with the intricacies of semantics that pervades his writings. He was also active in the circles of Muʿtazili theologians, becoming a pupil of al-Nazzam, whose ideas he later developed and critiqued. At the turn of the ninth century, his writings on the Imamate came to the attention of the caliph al-Maʾmun. After moving to Baghdad, and later Samarra, he began writing in earnest, enjoying the patronage and society of important officials in the ʿAbbasid administration, notably the vizier Ibn al-Zayyat, the chief judge Ahmad ibn Abi Duʾad, and the latter’s son Muhammad. Some of his treatises were written in support of the legitimacy of the ʿAbbasid caliphate and defending its policies, particularly during the mihna, when the Muʿtazila had common cause with the regime on the doctrine of the createdness of the Qurʾan. Yet, exposing the errors of sectarian rivals to the Muʿtazila and the dangers they posed was only part of his literary project. Steeped in the tradition of Arabia with its riches of poetry, proverbs, and oratory, he was also eager to engage with Greek texts, especially those of Aristotle, as recent translations were making possible. Prominent among his many concerns are the relative merits of lands and peoples, the social functions and human qualities associated with various crafts and professions, the exigencies of effective communication, and advice for the attainment of worldly and eternal happiness. Best known among his longer works are his anthology in celebration of eloquence al-Bayān wa-al-tabyīn (Communication and Clarification), his masterpiece of social satire Kitāb al-Bukhalāʾ (The Book of Misers), and his voluminous meditation on life and creation Kitāb al-Ḥayawān (The Book of Animals). Suffering from semi-paralysis in his later years, he returned to Basra where he died in 255/868–869, as legend would have it, crushed under a toppling pile of books. While his name was deemed synonymous with Arabic prose eloquence through the Middle Ages, it was only toward the beginning of the twentieth century that scholars in the East and West rekindled interest in his authentic works. Although questions of theology and linguistics pervade his writings, the fragmentary state of his corpus and the sheer inventiveness of his approach make placing him within the development of these disciplines an ongoing challenge for scholars.

Bibliographies

For those with sufficient knowledge of French to grasp its simple and well-organized annotation, the most thorough and useful guide to researching al-Jahiz’s writings, extant and lost, authentic and doubtful, is Pellat 1984. The best alternative in English is Montgomery 2005, which also includes materials published more recently. Ibn al-Nadim 1970 provides a glimpse into the Jahizian corpus as known to the Arabic audience a century after his death.

• Ibn al-Nadim. The Fihrist of al-Nadīm: A Tenth Century Survey of Muslim Culture. Vol. 1. Edited and translated by Bayard Dodge, 397–410. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1970.

  The Baghdad bookseller’s invaluable catalogue preserves a listing of all titles attributed to al-Jahiz known to its author in the late fourth century AH, while also providing a small collection of quotations and anecdotes that give us some idea of al-Jahiz’ reputation well over a century after his death.

• Montgomery, James. “Al-Jahiz.” In Arabic Literary Culture, 500–925. Edited by M. Cooperson and S. Toorawa, 231–242. The Dictionary of Literary Biography, 311. Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005.

  Contains a listing of extant works attributed to al-Jahiz, published editions and translations, with a wide selection of secondary literature listed among its references.

• Pellat, Charles. “Nouvel essai d’inventaire de l’œuvre ğāḥiẓienne.” Arabica 31.2 (1984): 117–164.

  DOI: 10.1163/157005884X00336

  In French, updating the author’s 1956 “Essai d’inventaire,” this remains the most complete catalogue of texts attributed to al-Jahiz, extant or lost, authentic or dubious. For each title, Pellat lists citations in premodern Arabic texts or modern reference materials, extant manuscripts, complete or partial editions, translations and scholarly treatments.