Septuagint

by

Leonard J. Greenspoon, William A. Ross

• LAST REVIEWED: 27 November 2023
• LAST MODIFIED: 24 October 2024
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195393361-0097

Introduction

The term Septuagint (or LXX) typically refers to a collection of ancient Jewish Greek texts produced in Egypt and Judea between the third century BCE and the second century CE. Although there is some variation, the boundaries of the corpus are usually identified with the contents of modern textual editions, most recently that of Alfred Rahlfs and Robert Hanhart, published in 2006. The majority of the Septuagint corpus consists of Greek translations of books that are part of the canonical Hebrew Bible. In addition, the Septuagint also includes Greek translations of noncanonical Hebrew or Aramaic writings such as Tobit, 1 Maccabees, and Ben Sira. Furthermore, certain works originally composed by Jews in Greek, such as the Additions to Esther, 2 Maccabees, and perhaps Judith, are also considered part of the traditional Septuagint corpus. The earliest part of the Septuagint to be produced was the translation of the Pentateuch, which occurred in Ptolemaic Egypt, likely in or around Alexandria, and can be dated confidently to the mid- or late third century BCE. The latest part of the corpus produced was likely 2 Esdras or Ecclesiastes, although certainty on this matter remains elusive, and important revisions and recensions of the corpus occurred in both Jewish and Christian communities into the fourth century CE. Contemporary scholarship on the Septuagint encompasses a wide array of areas of research. Primary among them are questions of textual production, transmission, and revision or recension in the ancient period. In addition, Septuagint scholarship also addresses the social, religious, and cultural contexts of Hellenistic Judaism in which most of the corpus was produced. Matters of language are also significant, as the Septuagint is the largest extant corpus of post-Classical (“Koine”) Greek. Other areas of study include translation, Jewish and early Christian theology and hermeneutics, New Testament textual criticism, and secondary versions produced from the Septuagint itself, such as the Vetus Latina. Septuagint scholarship is thus a thriving area of research that touches on many other subdisciplines within biblical scholarship and beyond. The primary hub of scholarly collaboration for the discipline is the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies (IOSCS), which maintains a website to curate disciplinary news, recent publications, and links to various related resources. The IOSCS also maintains a disciplinary journal, the Journal of Septuagint and Cognate Studies (formerly the Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies, Vols. 1–43).

General Overviews

Since the late twentieth century, introductions to the Septuagint have appeared with some regularity. These include both freestanding volumes, collections of articles and lengthy encyclopedia or dictionary entries. Some publications in this category, such as Bons, et al. 2023; Dines 2004; Gallagher 2021; Greenspoon 2009; Jobes and Silva 2015; Lanier and Ross 2021; and Law 2013, are accessible for non-specialists, while others, like Dorival, et al. 1994; Fernández Marcos 2000; and Tov 2016, assume knowledge of Greek and Hebrew and some level of familiarity with the discipline. Although there is, of course, some repetition from one introductory publication to the next, each of these contributions is distinguishable by virtue of its emphases, approaches, and intended audience. At the same time, the more recent contributions should be viewed as supplements to, rather than replacements for, the older but still valuable introductions Swete 1914 and Jellicoe 1968.

• Bons, Eberhard, Daniela Scialabba, and Dionisio Candido, eds. La Septuaginta: ¿Por qué resulta actual la Biblia griega? 2d ed. Estella, Spain: Editorial Verbo Divino, 2023.

  This edited volume is a collection of essays by leading scholars introducing various areas of study within Septuagint research, aimed at students of the humanities in general. Its focus is especially on the literary, cultural, and religious heritage of the Septuagint, including chapters on textual criticism, papyrology, and lexicography.

• Dines, Jennifer M. The Septuagint. Edited by Michael A. Knibb. London: T & T Clark, 2004.

  This work can be most profitably used by those with some background in Hellenistic studies, but it does not presuppose specialist knowledge of the Septuagint itself. Its compact length and lucid style recommend it as a starting point for advanced undergraduate or graduate students.

• Dorival, Gilles, Marguerite Harl, and Olivier Munnich. La Bible grecque des Septante: Du judaïsme hellénistique au christianisme ancien. 2d ed. Initiations au Christianisme Ancien. Paris: Édition du Cerf, 1994.

  This jointly-written study is aimed at those who have considerable prior familiarity with the Septuagint. Its particular strengths, as indicated by the last part of its title, lie in its extensive identification and exploration of Septuagint citations and allusions among early Christian writers.

• Fernández Marcos, Natalio. The Septuagint in Context: Introduction to the Greek Version of the Bible. Translated by Wilfred G. E. Watson. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.

  DOI: 10.1163/9789004498082

  Originally published in Spanish, this volume is especially strong in its treatment of the Septuagint in its daughter versions and in Jewish traditions. Overall, it is informed by judicious insights on the part of its author, a seasoned researcher. Some background in Septuagint scholarship is necessary to fully appreciate the material contained here.

• Gallagher, Edmon L. Translation of the Seventy: History, Reception, and Contemporary Uses of the Septuagint. Abilene, TX: Abilene Christian University Press, 2021.

  This volume offers an introduction for students to the importance of the Septuagint for early Christian theology. Less focused on matters of origins, like other introductions, it has detailed sections on the influence of the Septuagint upon the text and canon of the Bible in the late Second Temple Period, including apostolic use of the Septuagint. This volume is especially valuable for its helpful overview of the Septuagint in the Patristic age.

• Greenspoon, Leonard. “Septuagint.” In The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Vol. 5, S–Z. Edited by Katharine Doob Sakenfeld, 170–177. Nashville: Abingdon, 2009.

  This encyclopedia entry is intended for consultation by members of the clergy as well as of the academy. It contains discussion and analysis of several topics, including the application of translation studies to the explication of the Septuagint and current theories of its origins.

• Jellicoe, Sidney. The Septuagint and Modern Study. Oxford: Clarendon, 1968.

  This stands as the major synthesis of Septuagint studies at (or just after) the midpoint of the twentieth century. It is marked by its clear, essentially unbiased account of scholarly consensuses, disagreements, and controversies among the major scholars of that generation and should be consulted by anyone interested in the historical development of Septuagint studies.

• Jobes, Karen H., and Moisés Silva. Invitation to the Septuagint. 2d ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2015.

  This volume is nicely updated from its first edition and is an excellent option for students and scholars interested in gaining greater familiarity with the field. Making use of a well-developed and carefully applied pedagogy, this book is an excellent guide for those approaching the Septuagint for the first time. In addition to covering major topics related to the Septuagint itself, it also deals more broadly with the Septuagint in the context of biblical studies.

• Lanier, Gregory R., and William A. Ross. The Septuagint: What It Is and Why It Matters. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2021.

  This introductory volume is written for a popular audience, overviewing the Septuagint in broad strokes for students and interested readers, especially those within the Protestant tradition. Divided into two broad sections, the book first examines what the Septuagint is, how it was produced and transmitted, and then considers its importance for the study of the Old and New Testaments, including discussion of the notion of scriptural authority. This introduction is also available in Spanish and Korean.

• Law, Timothy Michael. When God Spoke Greek: The Septuagint and the Making of the Christian Bible. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

  DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199781713.001.0001

  This volume presents a popular level overview of the influence of the Septuagint upon the authors of the New Testament and its use within the early Church. Sometimes given to hyperbole in service of engaging prose, Law’s book can be read profitably alongside other works like Gallagher 2021 and Lanier and Ross 2021 for balance.

• Swete, Henry Barclay. An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek. 2d ed. Revised by Richard Rusden Ottley. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1914.

  Although numerous new discoveries and approaches have appeared in the years since its initial publication (it first appeared in 1900), this volume is a classic that should not be ignored, both because it is important for the history of scholarship and because it covers a number of topics more extensively than any subsequent publications.

• Tov, Emanuel. “Septuagint.” In Textual History of the Bible. Vol. 1A. Edited by Armin Lange and Emanuel Tov, 191–211. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2016.

  This article offers a concise but detailed overview of the Septuagint as a version of the Hebrew Bible, touching on the scope and sequence of the corpus, dating, textual evidence, modern editions, and other key matters. Tov’s scholarship on the textual history of the Septuagint and the Hebrew Bible has shaped the field for decades and deserves careful attention.