Juvenile Justice Professionals' Perceptions of Youth

by

Katherine Wilson-McCoy, Jennifer Peck

• LAST MODIFIED: 23 September 2024
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195396607-0335

Introduction

According to statistics provided by the US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, approximately 722,600 delinquency cases were processed in juvenile court in 2019. While this is the fewest number of cases since the mid-1970s, it is still apparent that youth continue to encounter the juvenile justice system each year. Within this system, there are several types of juvenile justice professionals and stakeholders that engage in numerous types of decision-making about youth (e.g., case processing, final case outcomes, supervision, treatment, and services, etc.) Juvenile justice professionals include police officers, probation officers, judges, jurors, correctional staff, lawyers (prosecutors, defense attorneys), treatment providers, and case managers, and each can make decisions about youth at one or many different stages of the juvenile justice system. Understanding stakeholder perceptions about youth is a crucial component of the juvenile justice system as a whole, as decision-makers, such as law enforcement officers, courtroom actors, social workers, etc. all play pivotal roles in shaping youths’ experiences and opportunities both within and after their time in the system. These views have a significant impact on the resources, support, and guidance provided to youth, which impacts their well-being, shapes their identity, and ultimately, their behavior. Furthermore, issues such as stereotypes, implicit or explicit biases, and misconceptions can then be identified and addressed, which can foster more compassionate, empathetic, and supportive relationships between stakeholders and youth. Police officers can be considered a gateway to the juvenile justice system for youth, while juvenile probation officers can interact with youth at the beginning, middle, and end of the juvenile court process. Naturally, interacting with justice-involved youth can translate to different types of perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes that are held by these stakeholders. As the roles, orientations, expectations, and responsibilities of each type of professional are different (yet may overlap), research has shown that juvenile justice professionals have both similar and different types of viewpoints of youth. These perceptions can also vary depending on the characteristics of youth and the reason for why they are involved in the juvenile justice system in the first place. For example, differing perceptions about youth have occurred due to their race/ethnicity, sex, mental health diagnoses, substance use, family environment, demeanor, risk for recidivism, and need for specific treatment/programming. Stakeholder characteristics also impact perceptions of justice-involved youth, such as their sex, level of education, age, and orientation for rehabilitation or punishment. Finally, understanding how different countries, societies, and cultures perceive and respond to delinquent behavior can help the juvenile justice system in the United States identify alternative approaches, strategies, and prevention/intervention mechanisms that may be more effective or suitable in certain contexts. Specifically, comparative studies across countries can shed light on disparities in access to justice, highlight best practices, and encourage collaboration and knowledge sharing.

Police and Youth Interactions

While there is a large amount of literature on the perceptions that youth may hold regarding the police, fewer studies have examined the connection between how police officers perceive youth and how these beliefs and attitudes can impact different outcomes. Kraus and Hasleton 1982, for example, examined factors that police perceive as important when deciding to recommend diversion instead of formal processing, while Hirschfield, et al. 2006; Sealock and Simpson 1998; Tapia 2011; and Wolf 2014 investigated what characteristics or circumstances influence arrest decisions. Studies have also examined the nuances of police-juvenile encounters, where Liederbach 2007 found both similarities and differences in police-youth interactions in urban and nonurban communities. Other research has concluded that stronger uses of authority and police use of force have occurred in police-juvenile encounters when police perceive that youth have a “disrespectful demeanor” as discussed by Brown, et al. 2009 and Morrow, et al. 2018.

• Brown, R. A., K. J. Novak, and J. Frank. 2009. Identifying variation in police officer behavior between juveniles and adults. Journal of Criminal Justice 37.2: 200–208.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.02.004

  To better understand the decision-making process of police when encountering youth and adults who are suspected of engaging in illegal behavior, this study found that police are more likely to arrest juveniles than adults. Notably, perceptions of youth by police officers (such as having a disrespectful demeanor) translated to a stronger use of authority by police officers when interacting with youth compared to adults.

• Hancock, K. 2019. Sheriff perceptions of juvenile trafficking and juvenile trafficking services. Children and Youth Services Review 99:366–373.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.02.005

  Using survey data from eighty-one sheriffs across nine states, this study examined the perceptions that sheriffs hold about juvenile trafficking and the types and quality of services provided to youth who are trafficking survivors. The findings showed that over half of respondents disagreed that “juvenile sex workers should be considered delinquents,” and over 44 percent agreed that “juvenile sex workers should be considered victims.”

• Hirschfield, P., T. Maschi, H. White, L. Traub, and R. Loeber. 2006. Mental health and juvenile arrests: Criminality, criminalization, or compassion? Criminology 44.3: 593–630.

  DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00058.x

  This study examined how mental health disorders (i.e., affective problems, anxiety problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder) impact the likelihood that male youth are arrested. Using data from the Pittsburg Youth Study, boys with oppositional defiant disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and externalizing behaviors had a greater likelihood of being arrested. One potential explanation is that police perceptions of youth with such problems may be “different” than those with anxiety or depression.

• Kraus, J., and S. L. Hasleton. 1982. Juvenile offenders’ diversion potential as a function of police perceptions. American Journal of Community Psychology 10.2: 171–182.

  DOI: 10.1007/BF00896422

  This study examined the perceptions of law enforcement officers of male youth who were arrested and eligible to receive diversion services versus formal processing in the juvenile justice system. Some perceptions of youth surrounded the concepts of offensive behavior, delinquent background, favorable impression, and nonserious offense. It was concluded that factors that pertain to interpersonal situations within police encounters are more impactful in diversion decisions than previously suggested.

• Liederbach, J. 2007. Controlling suburban and small-town hoods: An examination of police encounters with juveniles. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 5.2: 107–124.

  DOI: 10.1177/1541204006295151

  Using systematic observational data of street-level interactions between police officers and youth, this study examined if such encounters were similar or different for suburban and small-town communities. Results indicated that police in nonurban settings act similarly to those in urban areas. However, encounters between police and youth in nonurban settings may be less problematic and “tension filled,” where actions taken by police are perceived as supportive and non-confrontational.

• Morrow, W. J., L. E. Nuño, and P. Mulvey. 2018. Examining the situational and suspect-level predictors of police use of force among a juvenile arrestee population. Justice Policy Journal 15.1: 1–22.

  Using a sample of youth who were arrested in Arizona, the purpose of this study was to examine if youth-specific factors or characteristics of police-juvenile interactions resulted in police use of force. Results indicated youth who were perceived by police as resisting arrest, had a non-compliant demeanor, and were disrespectful during the encounter were more likely to have force used against them by a police officer.

• Sealock, M. D., and S. S. Simpson. 1998. Unraveling bias in arrest decisions: The role of juvenile offender typescripts. Justice Quarterly 15.3: 427–457.

  DOI: 10.1080/07418829800093831

  Using police contact data from the 1950s, this study examined different legal and extra-legal characteristics that may impact the likelihood of police arresting youth. Results indicated that police officers consider legal factors such as offense seriousness and number of prior contacts with the police in arrest decisions. However, the authors concluded that police may also use typescripts (stereotypes) based on race, sex, and socioeconomic status in deciding to arrest youth.

• Tapia, M. 2011. U.S. juvenile arrests: Gang membership, social class, and labeling effects. Youth & Society 43.4: 1407–1432.

  DOI: 10.1177/0044118X10386083

  Youth who are identified as being gang-affiliated have a higher likelihood of being arrested than their non-gang affiliated counterparts. This study includes the addition of socioeconomic status into this investigation. Tapia found that, unexpectedly, youth who are in a gang and reside in higher socioeconomic neighborhoods have a higher risk for arrest, compared to those in a gang who live in lower socioeconomic neighborhoods.

• Wolf, K. C. 2014. Arrest decision making by school resource officers. Youth Violence & Juvenile Justice 12.2: 137–151.

  DOI: 10.1177/1541204013491294

  This study examined the decision-making process of school resource officers when arresting youth at school. Results indicated that school resource officers utilize a great amount of discretion when deciding to arrest youth. In addition to the quality of evidence and guidelines that school resource officers must use when determining whether to arrest a youth, perceptions surrounding the youth’s attitude about the offense and history of misbehavior were also important factors.