Vedic Agni

by

Herman Tull

• LAST REVIEWED: 30 June 2014
• LAST MODIFIED: 30 June 2014
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0145

Introduction

Agni is the Sanskrit word for “fire,” derived from an Indo-European root and related etymologically to the Latin ignis. In the Vedic texts (composed c. 1500 BCE to 500 BCE)—a multilayered corpus that attests to the nature and existence of India’s ancient religious traditions—the term refers both to a deity (Agni) and to the sacred fire (agni). At the center of the Vedic tradition are a host of ritual acts that range from simple daily offerings made on the domestic hearth (the gṛhya rites) to complex quasi-public sacrificial rites that require a host of specialists to complete (the śrauta rites). Underlying these ritual performances is the notion that man gains the goods of life through making offerings to the gods. Agni as the element of fire and Agni as deity are the focal points of this world of ritual activity; as sacral fire, agni stands as both boundary and access point between the two worlds of the divine and human, and as deity, seen in his primary role of the “priest” of the gods, Agni is the one who broaches that boundary, carrying the offering from the world of men to that of the gods. Sometime after 500 BCE, the Vedic texts became a closed corpus, and the myths and the great ritual practices associated with them faded into obscurity (yet with no loss of cultural prestige in India). The handful of Vedic gods that persisted beyond the Vedic milieu (Agni among them) appear in substantially changed roles. Yet whereas the Vedic Agni of the great sacrifices is a historic relic in modern India, the Vedic agni (i.e., the sacral fire) of the domestic sacrifices remains sharply in evidence to this day, seen in particular in the performance of the Hindu marriage and funeral ceremonies (rites of passage in India are notably conservative, as is the case in many cultures), and serves as a clear, though often unrecognized, link to India’s ancient period. Additionally, Agni’s importance in the Vedic world stands as a sharp reminder of the overwhelming significance of fire in human history (both in terms of its power and its control), and man’s view of it as an extraordinary element, one to be celebrated and held in the highest esteem. Agni’s centrality in the Vedic tradition also evokes the widespread ritual use of fire found among the ancient Indo-European peoples.

General Overviews

There are no book-length treatments of the Vedic Agni. The most extensive (and detailed) study is a doctoral dissertation, Findley 1978, which focuses on Agni in the Ṛgveda (or Rig Veda), but also refers broadly to the nature and function of Agni throughout the Vedic texts, uncovering an image of Agni that begins with the fire itself and extends through Agni’s role as priest of the sacrifice and lord and protector of all Vedic culture. Findley 1986 presents, in lay terms, a brief but balanced analysis of Agni, noting the key elements of his mythology and his role in the Vedic cult. Nearly all the other general studies of Agni hearken back to the 19th century, a period of great activity in Vedic studies, but one marked by the unfortunate scholarly view that myths arose from a “primitive” worship of the powers of nature. Accordingly, in looking at Agni’s mythology, Hillebrandt 1980, Müller 1898, and Bloomfield 1908 emphasize his relationship to water as well as fire (both the element of fire as well as the fire associated with the sun and lightning). Oldenberg 1988 pays only cursory attention to Agni’s association with the world of natural phenomena, emphasizing in its stead the importance of Agni’s ritual functions (giving primacy to his role as priest of the gods). By presenting a range of descriptive quotations taken directly from the Vedic texts (albeit with limited discussion), Macdonell 1897 builds a detailed portrait of Agni’s characteristics and varied functions, from a description of his form, to the details of his birth, to his intimate relations with man. Keith 1925 also holds to a largely textual approach, while reprising the important work of the Indologists who preceded him.

• Bloomfield, Maurice. The Religion of the Veda: The Ancient Religion of India (from Rig-Veda to Upanishads). American Lectures on the History of Religions, seventh series. New York: Putnam’s, 1908.

  Contains a short section on Agni and is written for a general audience. Bloomfield suggests that Agni is first and foremost the element of fire, and that the elements of his mythology develop in a straightforward fashion from this base identification.

• Findley, Ellison Banks. “Aspects of Agni: Functions of the Ṛgvedic Fire.” PhD diss., Yale University, 1978.

  By focusing on certain key epitaphs and the quasi-separate mythological personae associated with Agni in the Ṛgveda, Findley uncovers a “system of Agni,” eliciting from the Vedic texts an image of Agni that is both rich in detail and deeply nuanced. The extensive bibliography is a valuable resource for the study of the Vedic Agni.

• Findley, Ellison Banks. “Agni.” In The Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 1. Edited by Mircea Eliade, 133–135. New York: Macmillan, 1986.

  This is a brief and highly accessible introduction to the subject. Drawing on the author’s extensive doctoral dissertation on Agni (Findley 1978), it presents a balanced view of Agni in Vedic myth and ritual.

• Hillebrandt, Alfred. Vedic Mythology. Vol. 1. Translated by Sreramula Rejeswara Sarma. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980.

  This work appeared originally in German in 1891. Hillebrandt devotes a substantial chapter to Agni, and analyzes both mythological and ritual elements in his discussion. However, in interpreting the Agni mythology, Hillebrandt tends to overemphasize Agni’s relationship to the world of natural phenomena.

• Keith, Arthur Berriedale. The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads. Harvard Oriental Series 31. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925.

  Keith devotes a short chapter to Agni. Keith’s work, the last to emerge from 19th-century Indology, reprises much of the work that preceded it. Similar to many of his predecessors, Keith was not averse to pointing out what he saw as lapses and deficiencies in Vedic thought. Nonetheless, given its comprehensiveness, Keith’s work remains a valuable guide to Vedic beliefs and practices.

• Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Grundiss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde 3.1.a. Strassburg: K. J. Trübner, 1897.

  Contains a lengthy chapter devoted to Agni, with an exhaustive collection of references to Agni taken directly from the Vedic texts. As such, the work tends to be descriptive rather than analytic. This work is oriented primarily to the Vedic mythology rather than to the rites that surround Agni.

• Müller, F. Max. Physical Religion: The Gifford Lectures. Rev. ed. New York: Longmans, Green, 1898.

  In this strangely titled work, Müller propounds his theories (now discredited) regarding early man’s worship of nature (the “physical” world) as the origin of religion. Lecture VII is devoted to a biography of Agni; though comprehensive in scope, it is marred by Müller’s dogmatic approach.

• Oldenberg, Hermann. The Religion of the Veda (Die religion des Veda). Translated by Shridhar Shrotri. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988.

  This work appeared originally in German in 1894. Devotes a partial chapter to Agni. Although Oldenberg’s analysis places Agni within the frame of nature mythology, he balances this with an emphasis on Agni’s intimate connection to the human world. Despite its age, Oldenberg’s work remains a trusted resource.