Language Ecology

by

Raúl Alberto Mora, Juan David Murillo-Egurrola

• LAST MODIFIED: 22 November 2024
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756841-0312

Introduction

Norwegian scholar Einar Haugen proposed language ecology to study how languages historically present in a land or social setting interact with languages that arrive in this setting due to different forms of social and economic mobility, fueled by different forms of migration and imperialist policies around the globe. As we caution against the risk of losing Indigenous and local languages as dominant languages appear, it is important to see how language ecology perspective frames the world as an ecosystem, seeking balance so all species can thrive. A language ecology approach examines power dynamics in language interactions that may marginalize minority languages. This approach also provides a form of resistance to counter neoliberal policies that promote particular policies regarding language that impose language choices in minoritized communities, further disenfranchising their languages from political, economic, and educational scenarios. Language ecology prioritizes human rights and linguistic equity. Language ecology examines cultural, historical, educational, and policy events to find sustainable and equitable language and literacy practices. Language ecology aims to prevent a dominant language from erasing minoritized and Indigenous languages in the name of globalization. Through global interactions, language ecology would empower, revitalize, and even rebirth. Language ecology advocates for critical views on bilingualism, multilingualism, language policy (especially in developing countries), and language education, especially English’s role in the world. Language ecology has also inspired scholars and advocates to challenge current language definitions like the second/foreign language binary and propose new frameworks like additional languages, second languages, or languages in contact. As societal superdiversity and local polarization clash in today’s cultural and linguistic scenarios, revisiting the notion of language ecology will ensure the survival of many languages. The influx of language ecology is currently evident in six areas: (a) the nexus between language ecology perspectives and the field of linguistics at large, in an area now coined as ecolinguistics; (b) the possibilities for language ecology to be at the front of the struggle for language rights and linguistic justice; (c) the links between language ecology and the promotion of more equitable views of multilingualism and translanguaging; (d) the possibilities for language ecology to inform language policies, especially related to Indigenous languages; (e) the connections between language ecology and a more diverse view of local varieties of English beyond the traditional idea of the inner circle (World Englishes); and (f) the potential for language ecology to be a catalyst for glocal and local language revitalization efforts. We will guide our review and selection of existing literature around them.

Foundational Works

As we look at papers that define language ecology, there is one common denominator among all of them: the recognition of the work of Einar Haugen (Haugen 2001) as the cornerstone that has built the scholarship on ideas such as language ecology, ecology of language, or ecolinguistics (see Language Ecology and Linguistics (Ecolinguistics) for a review). All the papers in this section acknowledge Haugen’s work while taking very different stances. Some authors, as demonstrated in Eliasson 2015, go deeper into Haugen’s work to trace its roots across different disciplines. Others, such as the authors of Palmer 1974 or van Lier 2004, trace Haugen’s work to further illustrate ongoing and emerging debates in language education and language learning. Other papers, such as Mufwene and Vigouroux 2017 or Skutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson 2011, recognize the legacy but propose new avenues to challenge the initial assertions about what language ecology is or to propose topics that were outside the scope of the initial works. However, a closer look at these foundational papers seems to offer another point of convergence besides Haugen’s initial definition: the potential of a notion such as language ecology to question traditional approaches to defining languages present in linguistics and adjacent fields. Garner 2005 and Kravchenko 2016a invite us to defy language reductionism and compartmentalization. Ludwig, et al. 2019 invites us to look at ecology as a metaphor and possibility, and Mühlhäusler 1997 challenges us to talk about language beyond traditional boundaries.

• Eliasson, S. 2015. The birth of language ecology: Interdisciplinary influences in Einar Haugen’s “The ecology of language.” Language Sciences 50:78–92.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.langsci.2015.03.007

  Discusses language ecology from an interdisciplinary perspective, tracing its roots to Einar Haugen’s groundbreaking work. Argues that language ecology draws from linguistics, ecology, botany, and zoology, to name a few. Also argues that while language ecology may still have a long way to go since Haugen’s initial work, the call for a more holistic view of language has changed how we discuss language today.

• Garner, M. 2005. Language ecology as linguistic theory. Kajian Linguistik dan Sastra 17.33: 91–101.

  DOI: 10.23917/kls.v17i2.4485

  Also revisits Haugen’s initial work to critique initial approaches to language ecology in linguistics and offer an outlook on future possibilities. Garner’s critique lies in using language ecology to mostly (if not only) discuss multilingual societies. However, he also outlines how linguistics can rely on language ecology to look more broadly at language beyond traditional reductionism and closely linked to what communities do with it.

• Haugen, E. 2001. The ecology of language. In The ecolinguistics reader: Language, ecology and environment. Edited by A. Fill and P. Müllhäuser, 57–66. London: Continuum.

  In what is considered one of the pioneer papers in the field of language ecology, Haugen proposes moving from the traditional priorities of linguistics (e.g., grammar, syntax, etc.) to looking more closely at how languages interact with their surroundings. Haugen also invites us to consider issues related to historical background, context, overlap, variety, oral and written traditions, and standing across different languages in today’s society.

• Kravchenko, A. V. 2016a. Language as human ecology: A new agenda for linguistic education. New Ideas in Psychology 42:14–20.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2015.05.002

  Kravchenko challenges traditional notions of language education that seem to separate languages into smaller units. From his critique of some instructional practices in early childhood in Russia, Kravchenko proposes an ecological view recognizing that languages are part of our social and biological constructs. This, Kravchenko argues, is the first step toward realizing that we learn language collectively, and thus, strict views of codified language do not promote meaningful learning.

• Ludwig, R., P. Mühlhäusler, and S. Pagel. 2019. Linguistic ecology and language contact: conceptual evolution, interrelatedness, and parameters. In Linguistic ecology and language contact. Edited by R. Ludwig, P. Mühlhäuser, and S. Pagel, 3–42. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

  The opening chapter of an anthology that rethinks traditional views of language contact through a language ecology lens. Ludwig, et al. first outline the etymological and epistemological origins of ecology. Then, the chapter delves into how the ecology metaphor has become the conceptual construct used to talk about languages. All this serves as a prelude to the conceptual and practical case studies that comprise the anthology.

• Mufwene, S. S., and C. B. Vigouroux. 2017. Individuals, populations, and timespace: Perspectives on the ecology of language revisited. Language Ecology 1.1: 75–103.

  DOI: 10.1075/le.1.1.05muf

  Proposes expanding traditional views of language ecology into two specific dimensions. On the one hand, the authors argue that discussions about individuals’ and communities’ roles in language construction are warranted to better understand language evolution. On the other hand, the authors invite us to consider how space (conceived as geolocation and mobility) and time are vital elements in further understanding language contact and evolution.

• Mühlhäusler, P. 1997. Language ecology–contact without conflict. In Language choices: Conditions, constraints, and consequences. Edited by M. Pütz, 3–15. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

  Proposes a move from traditional views of language conflict, always linked to colonial views and language imposition, to look at what different communities, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, are doing that promotes a sense of coexistence among languages in these communities. Calls for language views that promote multilingual societies and move past the constraints that national boundaries seem to place on language coexistence.

• Palmer, J. D. 1974. Language ecology. TESOL Quarterly 8:225–232.

  DOI: 10.2307/3586167

  First problematizes how understanding students’ cultures is paramount to their success in a foreign language classroom. Argues that Haugen’s idea of language ecology provides a way to improve foreign language education. Briefly reviews the notion of language ecology and then suggests ten questions based on this definition. The questions, the author argues, become specific actions geared toward making better instructional and policy decisions.

• Skutnabb-Kangas, T., and R. Phillipson. 2011. Language ecology. In Pragmatics in practice. Edited by J. Verschueren and J-O. Östman, 177–198. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

  Revisits Haugen’s initial definitions of language ecology as a build-up for their expanded definition. Proposes a series of categories that deserve inclusion in more contemporary definitions of language ecology, including language diversity, rights, and sociopolitical concerns. Also calls for a deeper understanding of the relationship between language and nature to transcend using ecology as a mere metaphor.

• van Lier, L., ed. 2004. The ecology and semiotics of language learning: A sociocultural perspective. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.

  Looks at language ecology from diverse perspectives to introduce how language ecology can benefit language learning. Drawing from ideas in philosophy, critical theories, psychology, semiotics, and linguistics, this volume invites readers to look at his proposal less as a blueprint and more as one possibility to engage with language ecology and revitalize the field of language education.