Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Dyslexia in Additional Language Learning, Teaching, and Use

by

Agnieszka Kałdonek-Crnjaković

• LAST MODIFIED: 17 April 2025
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199772810-0325

Introduction

The term “specific learning difficulties” or “specific learning disabilities” (SLDs) refers to the difficulties an individual can experience in the academic setting. The most common SLD is dyslexia. It frequently co-occurs with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which is a neurodevelopmental disorder that may cause learning difficulties; thus, it has been considered under the umbrella of SLDs in some countries. Dyslexia has been widely researched in the first (L1) and additional language. Findings suggest its effect on literacy skills development across different languages. In contrast, ADHD has been studied predominately from the neuropsychological perspective; as a result, little is known about this disorder from the linguistic perspective and especially about its effect on skills development in an additional language. This article discusses SLDs in the context of additional language learning and teaching. However, since the studies have predominately focused on dyslexia and the impact of ADHD on additional language acquisition has been scarcely discussed in the literature, the reader may find the content of some sections of this work disproportional. The article begins with a general overview, in which terminological issues and the features of dyslexia and ADHD are discussed from the L1 perspective. This section also includes information on those top journals that publish research on SLDs and related difficulties and disorders. This part of the article is followed by a description of leading hypotheses that attempt to explain second language (L2) literacy difficulties considering the cross-linguistic reference. The third section discusses the effect of SLDs on additional language learning. The effects of dyslexia and ADHD are presented separately, considering theoretical underpinnings and research evidence. The part on dyslexia also discusses affective factors. The issues around screening and diagnosing SLDs from the multilingual perspective are discussed in the next section, followed by information on pedagogical considerations: intervention, teaching approaches, accommodations, and the role of teachers.

General Overviews

SLDs encompass a wide range of unexpected learning difficulties, as Grigorenko, et al. 2020 discusses. Snowling 2005 explains that the unexpectedness considers what is expected of children of a specific age and general cognitive abilities, as well as to recognize that they can occur throughout the range of cognitive and language abilities. SLDs frequently co-occur with neurodevelopmental disorders, as Brimo, et al. 2021 finds. Peterson, et al. 2021 examines the extent to which SLDs are specific. Kormos and Smith 2023 offers an alternative term—“differences”—when referring to SLDs to consider the social and pedagogical setting and highlight learner individual differences in additional language learning. However, Kormos 2017a explains that, from the interactionist perspective, the term “difficulties” should be used as it is neutral and brings together “contrasting theoretical frameworks.” Kormos 2017b further reviews research findings on how SLDs affect the processes of multilingual language development. A later work, Kormos 2020 illustrates a research timeline regarding additional language skills development and instruction. Similarly, Fletcher and Grigorenko 2017 discusses changes in research paradigms on SLDs that impact practice and future research. Stein, et al. 2024 serves as an example of such changes in suggesting a turn toward the neurodiversity paradigm to diminish stress and stigma in individuals with SLDs.

• Brimo, K., L. Dinkler, C. Gillberg, P. Lichtenstein, S. Lundström, and J. Åsberg Johnels. 2021. The co‐occurrence of neurodevelopmental problems in dyslexia. Dyslexia 27.3: 277–293.

  DOI: 10.1002/dys.1681

  The study aimed at exploring the overlaps between dyslexia and neurodevelopmental disorders. Symptoms of inattention, oral language problems, and atypical sensory perception significantly predicted dyslexic difficulties in a multivariate analysis. Available online.

• Fletcher, J. M., and E. L. Grigorenko. 2017. Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: The past and the future. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 23.9–10: 930–940.

  DOI: 10.1017/S1355617717001084

  This paper discusses the changes in research paradigms on SLDs. The authors identify four changes that have implications for practice and future research. Available online.

• Grigorenko, E. L., D. L. Compton, L. S. Fuchs, R. K. Wagner, E. G. Willcutt, and J. M. Fletcher. 2020. Understanding, educating, and supporting children with specific learning disabilities: 50 years of science and practice. The American Psychologist 75.1: 37–51.

  DOI: 10.1037/amp0000452

  On the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the recognition of SLDs as a disability in the United States, this paper discusses the manifestations, occurrence, identification, comorbidity, etiology, and treatment of SLDs from the interdisciplinary perspective. Available online.

• Kormos, J. 2017a. The second language learning processes of students with specific learning difficulties. New York: Routledge.

  In the overview of the book, the author discusses different terms used to describe individual variances in cognitive ability and learning, considering different views and perspectives. Available online for purchase.

• Kormos, J. 2017b. The effects of specific learning difficulties on processes of multilingual language development. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 37:30–44.

  DOI: 10.1017/S026719051700006X

  This review discusses definitions of disability and SLDs, the interaction between L1 cognitive factors and L2 literacy skills development and L2 learning, possible screening ways for SLDs L2 learning contexts, and the impact of SLDs on additional language learning processes. Available online.

• Kormos, J. 2020. Specific learning difficulties in second language learning and teaching. Language Teaching 53.2: 129–143.

  DOI: 10.1017/S0261444819000442

  This research timeline outlines studies that address the role of SLDs in additional language skills development and instruction to illustrate how research evolved in this regard over time. Available online by purchase or subscription.

• Kormos, J., and A. M. Smith. 2023. Teaching languages to students with specific learning differences. 2d ed. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.

  DOI: 10.2307/jj.22679668

  This book coins the term Specific Learning Differences. It overviews dyslexia, dyscalculia, dyspraxia, ADHD, and Asperger’s syndrome/Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in the context of additional learning and teaching. Available online for purchase.

• Peterson, R. L., L. M. McGrath, E. G. Willcutt, J. M. Keenan, R. K. Olson, and B. F. Pennington. 2021. How specific are learning disabilities? Journal of Learning Disabilities 54.6: 466–483.

  DOI: 10.1177/0022219420982981

  Since academic skills are significantly correlated across the curriculum, the authors question the specificity of SLDs. To answer this question, they use bifactor models to examine a wide range of SLDs. The study involved 686 children ages eight to sixteen. Available online by purchase or subscription.

• Snowling, M. 2005. Specific learning difficulties. Psychiatry 4.9: 110–113.

  DOI: 10.1383/psyt.2005.4.9.110

  Although it may seem outdated, this paper provides information on different SLDs and their causes and manifestations across the life span in a very clear manner. Available online by subscription.

• Stein, B., F. Hoeft, and C. G. Richter. 2024. Stress, resilience, and emotional well-being in children and adolescents with specific learning disabilities. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 58:101410.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2024.101410

  This review explores the prevalence of stress and resilience factors in children with SLDs and calls for a turn toward the neurodiversity paradigm to diminish stress and stigma in individuals with SLDs. Available online.