Siege Warfare in Medieval Europe and the Middle East (500–1300)

by

Michael S. Fulton

• LAST MODIFIED: 19 February 2025
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199791279-0267

Introduction

Between the collapse of the western half of the Roman Empire in the fifth century and the introduction of gunpowder weapons in Europe in the fourteenth century, the means and methods of siege warfare in Europe changed little. The period is bookended by eras that saw larger armies who undertook more elaborate siege operations with more complex arsenals of weapons. There were certainly changes during the Middle Ages, including the introduction and development of the trebuchet, but these do not compare with the shifts that accompanied the end of Roman rule and the rapid rush toward modernity that began around the start of the Hundred Years’ War. This general continuity, and lack of obvious sensationalism, is part of the reason medieval siege warfare has only recently begun to receive close examination. Until the late twentieth century, the study of medieval warfare was dominated by discussions of major battles, a trend that can be traced back to the early nineteenth century and the nature of warfare at that time. The evolution of global conflicts in the late twentieth century encouraged a shift in scholarship, acknowledging that medieval warfare was instead dominated by small skirmishes and sieges. This led to the appearance of a few comprehensive studies of medieval siege warfare in the 1990s, which had the effect of impressing upon scholars the true breadth and depth of this field. Most works on the topic since have either been broad introductory books that target a popular audience, typically featuring numerous images of castles and town walls, or more focused studies for the benefit of academics that plumb the depths of a particular context. Meanwhile, as Western militaries came to rely on increasingly sophisticated and powerful weapons systems, some historians looked for similar wonder weapons in the past, often in the form of artillery. This, in turn, has encouraged skepticism in others and alternative assessments. Ironically, the conclusions of those who minimize the power and influence of medieval siege weapons often align with those of military historians of the late nineteenth century, many of whom were themselves army officers. The greater attention devoted to medieval siege warfare over the past generation has led to considerable advances and fruitful debates, often serving to emphasize the ongoing limits of our understanding and appreciation of various aspects of this field of study.

General Overviews

Through most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, studies of medieval warfare focused heavily on field engagements. Siege warfare thus tended to receive scholarly attention as a fairly awkward appendage to such broader studies or a general background to closer investigations of castles or siege technologies, usually of the ballistic type. Dedicated works on medieval siege warfare usually targeted a more popular audience, facilitated by the ease with which illustrations could be included, featuring examples typically drawn from the region where the language of publication was spoken. Warner 1968 and Gravett 1990 are examples of such, while Jones 1999 might be cited as a more recent addition to this category. Things changed in the early 1990s, as historians came to appreciate the importance and frequency of medieval sieges. Bradbury 1992 helped define a new conception of medieval siege warfare, demonstrating that academic study of siege warfare is both possible and meaningful beyond examinations of the development of siege technologies and evolution of castle architecture. Given the scope of this field, its depth and potential insights into broader aspects of medieval warfare, most scholarly works on the subject since the mid-1990s have focused on specific regions and often more limited periods of time.

• Bradbury, Jim. The Medieval Siege. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1992.

  In certain ways the first dedicated study of medieval siege warfare, the book explores the phenomenon that is the medieval siege chronologically and by region. Most attention, a product of the number of available sources, is dedicated to the period after 1050. Two final chapters explore siege weapons and conventions of siege warfare.

• Gravett, Christopher. Medieval Siege Warfare. Oxford: Osprey, 1990.

  This lavishly illustrated introduction to the subject offers an attractive and welcoming gateway for those unfamiliar with the field. Attention is fairly equally divided between methods of attack, defense, and the setup to siege scenarios.

• Jones, Richard L. C. “Fortification and Sieges in Western Europe, c. 800–1450.” In Medieval Warfare: A History. Edited by Maurice Keen, 163–185. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

  A fairly traditional introduction to the significance and fundamental aspects of sieges and the development of castles. Plenty of examples, most from Anglo-French contexts, are provided to support ideas and illuminate concepts. Although broad in scope, the degree of detail makes this a useful piece for scholars, though references are not included.

• Warner, Philip. Sieges of the Middle Ages. London: G. Bell, 1968.

  An accessible introduction to the subject in a primarily British context, this might better be classified as an introduction to ‘castle warfare’. A chapter on general principles of castle design is followed by eleven more devoted to a broad military history of medieval England.