Productive Engagement of Older Adults

by

Nancy Morrow-Howell

• LAST REVIEWED: 24 August 2021
• LAST MODIFIED: 25 April 2022
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195389678-0153

Introduction

There is extraordinary growth in the number and proportion of older adults in almost every country around the world. Low birthrates and low death rates are transforming the age structure of societies. Certainly, societies face challenges in ensuring economic security and health care to burgeoning older populations. It is true that growing numbers of older adults are physically and cognitively frail from the chronic conditions prevalent in late life. However, a larger number of older adults are fit and functioning, with as many as twenty years of life after formal retirement. And it is likely that the average age for the onset of dependency and death will continue to rise. By and large, the discussion of population aging has focused on “age drain”—the burden of older adults on the economy and the health-care system. We do not deny that chronic conditions and resulting disabilities eventually curtail human capacity for certain activities and that many older adults need supportive services. However, the productive aging perspective suggests that health and social services do not sufficiently address the issues of an aging society. The “age drain” perspective ignores the growing human capital of the older population, especially as education levels increase. This capacity can be engaged in activities that make economic and social contributions to society, including working, volunteering, caregiving, and grandparenting. This engagement can lead to multiple positive ends: offsetting the financial strains of an aging population, contributing to the betterment of society, and maintaining the health of older adults (Morrow-Howell, et al. 2001, cited under Introductory Works). This bibliography defines productive engagement in later life as the participation of older adults in activities that produce goods and services, whether paid for or not. This includes working, volunteering, and caregiving. Other scholars include educational and training activities. Indeed, there is not a set definition, but the term “productive engagement” represents the shift from the perspective that sees older adults as burdens to one that views them as contributors. As seen in the literature presented here, scholars have sought to understand current levels of productive engagement, factors associated with this engagement, programs and policies that promote engagement, and the outcomes of engagement to the individual, families, communities, and society. This article reflects a broad scope of critical issues associated with productive engagement in later life. Its author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Morgan Van Vleck and Sophie Mauk, graduate students at the George Warren Brown School of Social Work at Washington University in St. Louis in creating this bibliography.

Introductory Works

Many excellent books provide introductions and overviews about productive engagement in later life. These books are based on the perspective that the growing capacity of the older population should be recognized and encouraged for the sake of older individuals as well as society. In this bibliography, classic writings, as well as more current works, are included. Robert Butler introduced the term “productive aging” more than forty years ago to call attention away from the dependencies associated with later life to the current and potential contributions of older people (Butler and Gleason 1985). Bass, et al. 1993 discusses the concept of productive aging, identifies the current options available to older people, and addresses major challenges in achieving a productive aging society. The authors also contributed the first conceptual framework on factors associated with productive engagement. Morrow-Howell, et al. 2001 consolidates the best thinking of a group of prominent gerontologists about the conceptual and the theoretical framework of productive aging, while emphasizing the importance of an interdisciplinary perspective. Freedman 2007 describes working longer in jobs with a social purpose as a new movement that represents positive outcomes for older adults and society; and Munnell and Sass 2008 presents working longer as the solution to the economic challenges faced by the older population. Musick and Wilson 2008 makes a significant contribution in covering a comprehensive range of topics regarding volunteering by older adults. More recent scholarship has focused on longer working lives and the aging workforce, with two edited volumes that include multidisciplinary perspectives, various stakeholders’ positions, and the scholarship from experts in the field (Czaja, et al. 2020; Fideler 2021). Over time, scholars have recognized the importance of a life-course perspective and intersections of social forces in understanding productive roles in later life (Morrow-Howell, et al. 2018). Also, the positive and negative effects of role engagement depend not only on the personal characteristics of the older person but also on the nature and perceived quality of experience within the activity (Matz, et al. 2020).

• Bass, S. A., F. G. Caro, and Y. Chen, eds. 1993. Achieving a productive aging society. Westport, CT: Auburn House.

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  This pioneering book on productive aging assesses the status of productive engagement among the older population and provides a conceptual framework for understanding engagement activities and outcomes. Authors of the edited volume identify major issues and obstacles, including the need to change perceptions and attitudes toward older adults. They highlight the importance of transforming institutions to enable productive engagement of older adults.

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• Butler, R. N., and H. Gleason. 1985. Productive aging: Enhancing vitality in later life. New York: Springer.

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  In the first book using the concept of “productive aging,” the authors warned against extending human life for longevity itself but encouraged meaningful engagement of people into the longer life course. They called for the direction of attention away from the limitations of later life toward to potential of ongoing contribution and meaning.

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• Czaja, S., J. Sharit, and J. James. 2020. Current and emerging trends in aging and work. New York: Springer.

  DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-24135-3Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This edited volume offers a comprehensive look at age and work. Themes include the changing nature of retirement, the need for longer working lives to meet economic needs, the important role of technology and ongoing skill development, and the demand that employing organizations prepare for a multigenerational workforce.

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• Fideler, E. F. 2021. The Rowman & Littlefield handbook on aging and work. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

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  In this collection of articles from the top experts in the field, a wide range of challenges and opportunities in the workplace associated with demographic shifts are considered. The perspectives of older workers, supervisors, work organizations, and policymakers are included. This is an excellent resource for those interested in the topic of work and productive engagement of older people.

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• Freedman, M. 2007. Encore: Finding work that matters in the second half of life. New York: PublicAffairs.

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  The author describes a vision for the next stage of work through telling stories of encore career pioneers who resisted stepping back from meaningful work and searched for a calling in later life. Shifting from “freedom from work” to “freedom to work,” the author discusses both the financial meaning and the psychic identity of work.

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• Matz, C., E. Sabbath, and J. James. 2020. An integrative conceptual framework of engagement in socially-productive activity in late life. Clinical Social Work Journal 48.6: 156–168.

  DOI: 10.1007/s10615-020-00756-xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  In this manuscript, the authors put forth a framework that centers the concept of quality engagement, a concept they found missing in the study of outcomes associated with productive engagement. They argue that elements of the role and the context in which they are enacted determine whether the individual will benefit from that involvement.

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• Morrow-Howell, N., E. Gonzales, J. James, C. Matz-Costa, and M. Putnam. 2018. Advancing long and productive lives. In Grand challenges for social work and society. Edited by R. Fong, J. Lubben, and R. Barth. 81–102. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

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  The productive engagement of older adults was selected by the American Academy of Social Work and Social Welfare as one of the grand challenges of our society. In this overview of the topic, the authors review the demographic imperative and the associated challenges and opportunities in maximizing the engagement of older people as workers, volunteers, and caregivers. The focus is on programs and policies to facilitate engagement in ways that maximizes positive outcomes for individuals, families, and societies.

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• Morrow-Howell, N., J. Hinterlong, and M. Sherraden. 2001. Productive aging: Concepts and challenges. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.

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  The book defines the principles, historical perspectives, and conceptual frameworks for productive aging. It takes a multidisciplinary approach, assessing the biomedical, psychological, sociological, and economic implications of a more capable older population. Also, it considers advances in theories of aging and suggests future directions in practice, theory, and research.

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• Munnell, A., and S. A. Sass. 2008. Working longer: The solution to the retirement income challenge. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute.

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  This book reviews challenges and opportunities of recruiting and retaining older workers who need income to support longer periods of retirement. It investigates the effects of moving the average retirement age from 63 to 66 and calls for improvements in Social Security, employer pensions, and 401(k) plans.

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• Musick, M. A., and J. Wilson. 2008. Volunteers: A social profile. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.

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  This book is a comprehensive review of current research on volunteering. The authors augment existing research with their own analysis of data from secondary sources. Content covers volunteer motivation by focusing on individuals’ subjective states, their available resources, and the influence of age, gender, and race, as well as organizational features that affect volunteering and outcomes of volunteering.

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General Overviews

Given increasing attention to the topic of productive engagement and civic engagement in later life, a growing number of web-based resources are related to this topic. Many of these resources are associated with national organizations and associations that provide productive engagement programs or lead civic engagement initiatives, such as the American Society on Aging and Gerontological Society of America. The website of the Corporation for National and Community Service provides many links to resources on working, volunteering, and learning. AARP, Center for Retirement Research at Boston College, Sloan Center on Aging and Work at Boston College, and the Employee Benefit Research Institute are all conducting and publicizing research studies on issues of an aging workforce. Encore.org is a great resource for practitioners, policymakers, and older adults who are interested in working longer or switching careers. The research resources of the Urban Institute on aging issues are comprehensive and useful to policymakers, educators, students, and practitioners. Generations United is a national organization dedicated to improving the lives of children, youth, and older people through intergenerational collaboration and program/policy advocacy.

• AARP.

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  AARP, formerly the American Association of Retired Persons, is a US-based nonprofit membership organization for people age 50 and over. Dedicated to enhancing seniors’ quality of life, AARP addresses issues affecting older Americans through numerous initiatives, provides volunteer opportunities, holds events, and produces radio and television programs that focus on aging issues. Its publications include the only bilingual US publication devoted exclusively to the 50+ Hispanic community.

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• American Society on Aging.

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  ASA is the largest organization of multidisciplinary professionals in the field of aging. ASA’s civic engagement program takes the lead in redefining the retirement years by organizing web seminars and a national civic engagement forum, publishing a special issue of Generations on civic engagement, and providing links to the latest resources regarding civic engagement in later life.

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• Center for Retirement Research at Boston College.

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  An authoritative source of information on major aspects of the retirement debate, the center’s current projects cover topics of Social Security, employer-sponsored/private pension plans, work and retirement, saving and compensation, health, and international issues. Scholars at the center collect and analyze data on issues related to working and make data resources widely accessible. The center also links users to other retirement research resources.

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• Corporation for National and Community Service.

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  An independent agency of the US government, CNCS is the nation’s largest organization supporting civic service and volunteering. It delivers service/volunteering programs, including Senior Corps and the Foster Grandparent Program, which connect older adults with service opportunities in their communities. CNCS also provides research reports and analyses on volunteering and civic life.

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• Employee Benefit Research Institute.

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  This organization, committed to original public policy research and education on economic security and employee benefits, is a good resource for issues on retirement and the aging workforce. It conducts and publicizes aging-related research articles on older adults’ employment status, retirement pensions, incomes, and retirement plans.

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• Encore.org.

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  Originally created as a home for the Experience Corps program, Encore.org currently focuses on making encore careers possible for baby boomers and manages an inventive program portfolio, which includes the Purpose Prize, Encore Fellowships, Encore College, and Encore Opportunity Awards. It also publishes original research that illuminates society’s need for encore careers and baby boomers’ desire to start them.

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• Generations United

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  For over thirty years, this non-profit organization has brought together organizations, partners, and stakeholders to develop and promote strategies to improve lives across the life course through intergenerational efforts. GU produces reports on vital topics, such as intergenerational housing, grandparenting, and communities for all ages. They recognize outstanding programs and advocates through funding and awards. The organization continually promotes an intergeneration approach and frames policy initiatives to benefit all generations.

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• Gerontological Society of America.

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  Devoted to research, education, and practice in the field of aging, the GSA brings awareness and visibility to career and education opportunities in aging and aging research. The website provides links to civic engagement policy publications, advocacy initiatives, and press releases.

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• Sloan Center on Aging and Work at Boston College.

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  The Sloan Center explores workplace flexibility to promote the quality of employment for a multigenerational workforce. It provides a weekly updated database and a searchable literature collection for information about the national and global multigenerational workforce. It conducts projects in practice and research and engages business leaders, academics, and policymakers in multidisciplinary dialogue.

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• Urban Institute.

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  The Urban Institute, a nonpartisan research center, gathers data, analyzes policies, evaluates programs, and educates and informs Americans on social and economic issues. It prepares reports, articles, and books on aging issues with state, national, and international perspectives that demonstrate research results on aging demographics, economics, workforce, productive aging, health care, and human services for older adults.

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Journals

This section provides an overview of professional journals in gerontology and social work. Some are official publications of national aging associations: Generations is published quarterly by the American Society on Aging; Journal of Applied Gerontology is issued by the Southern Gerontological Society; and Journals of Gerontology, Series A and Journals of Gerontology, Series B are publications of the Gerontology Society of America. These journals provide multidisciplinary perspectives on human aging and bring together practice, research, and policy. In addition, Research on Aging serves as an international forum for the latest work regarding aging societies. Journal of Gerontological Social Work is the only journal specific to social work in the field of aging. Journal of Aging and Social Policy has a special focus on policy implications of population aging. As the official journal of the Gerontological Society of America, The Gerontologist includes multidisciplinary work that has applicability to older adults.

• Generations. 1976–.

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  This quarterly journal of the American Society on Aging presents critical issues on aging society by bringing together research, practice, and policy. The editorial board identifies pressing issues and organizes top scholars and leaders on these topics to present current knowledge, challenges, and implications for future directions.

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• The Gerontologist. 1961–.

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  This bimonthly journal of the Gerontological Society of America focuses on multidisciplinary applied issues in aging. It includes content related to social policy, program development, and service delivery.

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• Journal of Aging & Social Policy. 1989–.

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  This journal focuses on policy implications of population aging. Published articles are generally framed in a policy context and offer commentary on key policy issues, including financial security, employment, retirement, health (physical and mental), long-term care, housing, and transportation.

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• Journal of Applied Gerontology. 1982–.

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  The official journal of the Southern Gerontological Society provides an international forum for information that has clear and immediate applicability to quality of life for older adults. The journal takes a broad perspective on applied research and encourages contributions across a range of program and policy applications.

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• Journal of Gerontological Social Work. 1979–.

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  This is the only journal specific to gerontological social work. It publishes articles devoted to social work practice, theory, administration, and consultation in the field of aging. It serves as a respected forum for valuable cutting-edge insights and information from experts in the field.

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• Journals of Gerontology, Series A. 1995–.

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  As the official publication of the Gerontology Society of America and the first journal on aging published in the United States, Series A has a long tradition of excellence in peer-reviewed scientific research articles and guest editorials. Series A includes the Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences and Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences, respectively focusing on biological aspects of aging issues and addressing basic medical science and health services research.

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• Journals of Gerontology, Series B.

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  Series B publishes within its covers the Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, focusing on applied, clinical and counseling, developmental, experimental, and social psychology of aging; and the Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, including articles with perspectives of anthropology, demography, economics, epidemiology, geography, political science, public health, social history, social work, and sociology.

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• Research on Aging. 1979–.

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  This interdisciplinary journal serves as an international forum for the latest analyses on critical issues, questions, and controversies facing today’s aging population. It publishes articles that help to develop new knowledge and to inform practices and policies concerning older adults and the aging process.

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Volunteering

Productive engagement in later life can be defined as older adults’ participation in volunteering, working, and caregiving. Volunteering can be divided into two types, formal and informal, depending on whether the activity is organized by a formal organization or not. This review is extended to include educational/training activities that develop the capacity for productive engagement. “Civic engagement” is a term that is frequently used and includes volunteering in the broadest sense—working on community projects, participating in government organizations, and volunteering. We thus include a review of the civic engagement literature as a subset of the productive aging literature. Finally, works are overviewed that deal with patterns of engagement or engagement of multiple productive activities simultaneously.

Working

Extensive research has been conducted on employment among older people and the aging workplace. Two trends are noteworthy: Participation of older adults in the labor force has grown over the last several decades; and retirement is becoming much less of an “all or nothing” experience as older workers transition into retirement in a variety of ways. Johnson, et al. 2021 reviews the factors related to the growth of older workers, noting that longer working lives correspond to a need for income for a longer period of time, and the authors point out the growing financial insecurity of retirees. Schramm 2018 and Andrea, et al. 2022 describe how employment engagement is patterned by sociodemographic characteristics, with higher rates of unemployment among minoritized and less resourced older people. The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic has yet to be fully realized but workers over the age of 55 had higher unemployment rates and slower reemployment than mid-career workers (Davis, et al. 2020). Carr, et al. 2021 describes how patterns of later life work are changing, with more bridge jobs, phased retirement, and unretiring as well as more interest and engagement in self-employment (Halvorsen and Chen 2019). Although the positive outcomes of work have been documented, like increased income and savings as well as higher levels of purpose and well-being, it has been noted that working is not good for everyone. Taylor 2019 argues the positive outcomes depend on high quality work environments, and Halvorsen 2021 suggests that the benefits of self-employment are conferred more often to individuals with higher social and financial resources. Efforts to improve supports for older workers improve outcomes for individuals and organization alike. McNamara and Pitt-Catsouphes 2020 reviews the characteristics of favorable workplaces, including culture of respect and inclusion, opportunities for training and advancement, meaningful work, flexibility, and fair compensation/benefits. Policy efforts include strengthening age-discrimination legislation at state and federal levels as well as supporting and expanding the Senior Community Service Employment Program (SCSEP), a federal program designed to improve the employability of low-income older adults (Halvorsen and Yulikova 2020).

• Andrea, S., J. Eisenberg-Guyot, V. M. Oddo, T. Peckham, D. Jacoby, and A. Hajat. 2022. Beyond hours worked and dollars earned: Multidementional EQ, retirement trajectories and health in later life. Work, Aging and Retirement 8.1: 51–73.

  DOI: 10.1093/workar/waab012Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The authors created a framework for employment quality among older adults and used this framework to study the association between employment quality, retirement trajectories, and health in later life. The findings contribute to our understanding about how the conditions of work affect well-being; and they also provide insights into how people of color and women are disproportionately exposed to poor employment quality and subsequently have worse health. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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• Carr, D., B. King, and P. Moen. 2021. A portfolio framework for extended work pathways. In The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Aging and Work. Edited by E. F. Fideler, 481–504. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

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  This chapter reviews the various pathways from work to retirement stemming from financial forces shaping longer lives. Included are discussions of encore careers, self-employment, and the gig economy as well as various portfolios, consisting of full- or part-time work, contract work, and modified work arrangements. Strategies are provided for both older adults who are planning to work later in life as well as for employers looking to improve their utilization of the skills of older adults.

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• Davis, O., B. Fisher, T. Ghilarducci, and S. Radpour. 2020. A first in nearly 50 years, older workers face higher unemployment than mid career workers. Status of Older Workers Report Series. New York: Schwartz Center for Economic Policy Analysis at the New School for Social Research.

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  Using Current Population Survey data, these researchers look at trends in employment of workers 55 years and older before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. They note that older workers have become unemployed at higher levels than mid-career workers for the first time in decades. Further, reemployment is slower for these older workers; and blacks, women, and people without college degrees are hardest hit. Policy recommendations are provided to reduce the prevalence of unemployment among older adults as a result of the pandemic. Available online.

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• Halvorsen, C. 2021. How self-employed older adults differ by age: Evidence and implications from the Health and Retirement Study. The Gerontologist 61.5: 763–774.

  DOI: 10.1093/geront/gnaa132Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Using multiple wave of the Health and Retirement Survey, the author focuses on people 50 years of age and older who are self-employed. In comparing those 50 to 62 years of age to those over 62 years, it was found that the older self-employed people were more likely to be black, in poorer health, have lower incomes, and lower volunteer engagement rates. Findings suggest great diversity among self-employed older adults and suggest that safety net income and insurance programs are vital for this population. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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• Halvorsen, C., and Y.-C. Chen. 2019. The diversity of interest in later-life entrepreneurship: Results from a nationally representative survey of Americans aged 50 to 70. PLoS ONE 14.6.

  DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217971Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This study examines a nationally representative sample to discern the interest in entrepreneurship among older adults. Findings indicate that a more diverse group of older adults are interested in entrepreneurship than actually become entrepreneurs, and suggestions are made for improving diversity among later-life entrepreneurs. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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  • Medline

• Halvorsen, C. J., and O. Yulikova. 2020. Job training and so much more for low-income older adults: The Senior Community Service Employment Program. Clinical Social Work Journal 48.2: 223–229.

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  This article critiques the Department of Labor’s suggestion to discontinue the Senior Community Service Employment program (SCSEP) for low-income older adults because of not achieving post-training employment goals. The authors suggest that the Department of Labor’s evaluation of the program is shortsighted and should include the health and social engagement outcomes experienced by the participants. Available online or by subscription.

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• Johnson, R., K. Smith, and D. Cosic. 2021. The growing financial imperative to work longer. In The Rowman & Littlefield handbook of aging and work. Edited by E. F. Fideler, 15–34. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

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  This book chapter describes the factors that have created the trend of working longer and the factors that make it necessary for older adults to remain in the workforce. A focus of this chapter is on the increasing vulnerability of younger generations, given uncertainties about the workforce and economic conditions; and younger generations may be more vulnerable to later life economic insecurity than the current older population.

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• McNamara, T., and M. Pitt-Catsouphes. 2020. The stickiness of quality work. In Current and emerging trends in aging & work. Edited by S. Czaja, J. Sharit, and J. James, 375–395. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.

  DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-24135-3_19Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This book chapter considers complex factors at the individual, family, and societal levels that are associated with the intent to retire. The authors conclude that for those who have to or want to remain in the workforce, it is important to be in “quality” jobs that fit “needs and priorities.” They review characteristics of job that may be important, such as meaningful work, compensation and benefits, and training and development; and they suggest that older workers, especially vulnerable older workers, may end up leaving work if these qualities are non-existent. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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• Schramm, J. 2018. An aging labor force and the challenges of 65+ jobseekers. Washington, DC: AARP.

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  This policy brief addresses the need to support labor force participation of older adults to improve economic security of individuals, relieve pressure on pension systems, and ensure labor supply. A range of policy solutions are presented, including increased access to lifelong education, creating strategies to reintegrate older workers, and strengthening existing age discrimination laws. Available online.

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• Taylor, P. 2019. Working longer may be good public policy but it is not necessarily good for older people. Journal of Aging & Social Policy 31.2: 99–105.

  DOI: 10.1080/08959420.2019.1576487Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article discusses the potential negative effects of promoting longer workforce participation of older adults. It is a welcomed counter to the predominate narrative of the importance of working longer. The author points out that for many older workers, working does not contribute to health and emotional well-being. There are few choices for many older people in low-quality jobs. Further, outside of work, there are many other important contributions older people make through caregiving and volunteering. Available online by subscription or purchase.

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Caregiving

Older adults provide caregiving to disabled older adults and children as well as grandchildren. This work has been overlooked in terms of contribution to families and society, yet the value of this unpaid work is great. In 2017, the estimated economic value of family caregiving was $470 billion AARP, 2019; and the number of caregivers over the age of 50 is substantial and growing. These caregivers are more likely to be female, white, and married; and they provide an average of twenty-four hours of assistance a week (AARP and National Alliance for Caregiving 2020).About one-third of older caregivers work outside the home, managing the demands of these multiple productive roles (Wolff, et al. 2018). The negative outcomes of this role to the physical, mental, and financial health of caregivers have been widely documented (Bom, et al. 2019). More attention is now paid to the positive outcomes of caregiving, given family members’ sense of responsibility and connection (Quinn and Toms, 2019). There are policy initiatives to support caregivers, like expansion of paid Family and Medical Leave as well as consumer-directed care programs (Bradley, et al. 2021). Gonzales, et al. 2021 points out the importance of amending Social Security work history formulas via the Caregiving Credit Act to recognize the contribution of individuals who leave the formal workforce for caregiving. Giltin, et al. 2015 reports that there are more than 200 dementia caregiving interventions with evidence of effectiveness; but the problem remains that dissemination and implementation of these programs is limited. The role of grandparent caregivers has grown in recent times, given social issues of family disruption, mental illness, drug use, and incarceration; and Hayslip, et al. 2019 estimates that three million middle aged and older grandparents care for nearly six million children. Generations United 2021 outlines policy, practice, and research recommendations to increase support to grandparents raising grandchildren, including increased education and psychoeducation support programs, better financial and legal assistance, and improved child welfare agency practices to support kinship care.

• AARP & National Alliance for Caregiving. 2020. Caregiving in the United States 2020. Washington, DC: AARP.

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  This report summarized data collected in 2019 from a nationally representative sample of 1,392 unpaid family caregivers aged 18 and older. The report provides a comprehensive overview of the characteristics and situations of the care providers and the care recipients. There is discussion of the new pressures on families in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Special attention is given to discussing the unique profiles of caregivers given identity, such as race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and gender. Available online.

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• Bom, J., P. Bakx, F. Schut, and E. van Doorslaer. 2019. The impact of informal caregiving for older adults on the health of various types of caregivers: A systematic review. The Gerontologist 59:e629–e642.

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  This systematic review covers findings on the health effects of informal caregiving on individuals from fifteen different articles. Findings suggest that negative impacts on health due to caregiving are amplified for unmarried females. This article suggests targeted interventions to help alleviate the negative impacts of caregiving on more at-risk groups. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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• Bradley, V., K. Mahoney, and M. Fenton. 2021. Self-direction: A revolution in human services. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.

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  This book describes the movement toward self-direction in human services for older adults and people with disabilities. Traditional care management models rely on professionals determining care needs and arranging services. Self-direction empowers the person using the services to make decisions about what is needed and who will provide the assistance. Evaluations of this approach provide evidence for its effectiveness; yet, widespread implementation is yet to be realized.

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• Generations United. 2021. Reinforcing a strong foundation: Equitable supports for basic needs of grandfamilies. State of Grandfamilies Report 2021. Washington, DC: Generations United.

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  This report highlights issues around grandparents raising grandchildren, which is an increasingly common form of caregiving. Information about how current health and social service systems fail grandfamilies is provided, along with suggestions for making policy more equitable. Infographic, executive summary, and full report are available online.

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• Gitlin, L., K. Marx, I. Stanley, and N. Hodgson. 2015. Translating evidence-based dementia caregiving interventions into practice. The Gerontologist 55:210–226.

  DOI: 10.1093/geront/gnu123Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  These authors emphasize that empirically supported interventions to improve caregiving and the lives of caregivers have been designed and tested, but they have not been widely implemented. The authors overview the current collection of evidence-based programs as well as the few number of translation studies that have been conducted to move them into real-world settings. They give recommendations on how this implementation gap can be narrowed. Available online.

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• Gonzales, E., J. Greenfield, C. Halvorsen, et al. 2021. Policy recommendations for meeting the grand challenge to advance long, healthy, and productive lives. Grand Challenges of Social Work Policy Brief #13. Baltimore, MD: American Academy of Social Work and Social Welfare.

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  This source provides policy recommendations to facilitate the inclusion of older people in productive roles vital to families and societies. Policies and programs to support older workers, volunteers, and caregivers are reviewed. These efforts are aimed at reducing ageism, engaging low-income older adults in workforce training, broadening support for family care, and promoting public programs that engage older people in volunteer service roles. Available for download online.

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• Hayslip, B., Jr, C. Fruhauf, and M. Dolbin-MacNab. 2019. Grandparents raising grandchildren: What have we learned over the past decade? The Gerontologist 59:e152–e163.

  DOI: 10.1093/geront/gnx106Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article provides a review of literature since 2004 on grandfamilies. The findings cover a range of topics pertaining to the family dynamics and characteristics of grandfamilies, the socio-political context for grandfamilies, and suggestions for practice-informed research on interventions for grandfamilies. Available online.

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• Quinn, C., and G. Toms. 2019. Influence of positive aspects of dementia caregiving on caregivers’ well-being: A systematic review. The Gerontologist 59:e584–e596.

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  This article uses a narrative synthesis to look at findings from fifty-three studies that focus on the effects of positive aspects of caregiving, such as caregiver satisfaction and meaning, as well as gains and rewards. This systematic review adds to the body of literature on caregivers of those with dementia by highlighting the importance of positive aspects of caregiving. Available online.

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• Reinhard, S. C., L. F. Feinberg, A. Houser, R. Choula, and M. Evans. 2019. Valuing the invaluable 2019 update: Charting a path forward. Insight on the Issues. Washington, DC: AARP.

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  This report focuses on the economic value of unpaid caregiving and discusses policy changes to improve support for informal, unpaid caregivers on the state and federal levels. An overview of trends in caregiving is given and current information on the characteristics of family caregivers is also provided. Available online.

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• Wolff, J. L., J. Mulcahy, J. Huang, D. L. Roth, K. Covinsky, and J. D. Kasper. 2018. Family caregivers of older adults, 1999–2015: Trends in characteristics, circumstances, and role-related appraisal. The Gerontologist 58.6: 1021–1032.

  DOI: 10.1093/geront/gnx093Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  These researchers use several secondary data bases to construct nationally representative profiles of older adults receiving assistance and their unpaid caregiver. Over a sixteen-year period, care recipients trended younger, more racially diverse, and more educated, while caregivers remained primarily women who provide care for over a four-year period. The researchers conclude that family caregivers’ situations generally improved over this period of time. Available online.

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Education

Ongoing education and learning are vital activities for older adults—not only for personal enrichment, but also, more importantly, for workforce training and career development. Morrow-Howell, et al. 2020 reviews the pressing need to support education throughout the longer life course. Arguments for colleges and universities to serve students mid-life and beyond include the need for training and professional development for longer working lives, the benefits of multigenerational classrooms to prepare students for multigenerational workforces, and the impending shortage of traditionally aged students due to declining birth rates. It is a challenge to transform institutions of higher education that have traditionally been age segregated. Good progress has been made in recent years in serving older learners in degree and certificate programs, in community colleges, and in online programs (Cummins, et al. 2019). Montepare 2019 highlights the importance of outreach and admission practices, student support services, and career development approaches in achieving more age-inclusive institutions. Morrow-Howell, et al. 2020 documents the perspectives and strategies of admission and career services staff who articulate both the benefits and challenges of serving an age-diverse student body. The benefits of serving experienced students with clearer intentions to be in school as well as their contributions to multigenerational classrooms were widely acknowledged as well as the challenges of uneven digital competencies, more constraints on socialization events on campus, and age discrimination in the workplace after graduation. Lumina Foundation 2017 highlights the disparities in post-secondary education, along socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds; and calls for greater emphasis on certificate and certifications for people without college degrees. There is a new global initiative, the Age Friendly University (AFU) Global network, aimed at increasing age diversity and making institutions of higher education more age inclusive. The AFU network serves as a learning collaborative for colleges and universities across the world to share best practices in engaging older people in all aspects of campus life. Clark and Leedahl 2019 describes a strategic plan for enlisting campus-wide support for the age-friendly university (AFU) principles, while Whitbourne and Montepare 2017 points out how ageism and age stereotyping threaten organizational change. Silverstein, et al. 2022 develops a method to audit age-inclusive practices on a college-campus to baseline areas of strength and areas for improvement. The AFU Inventory and Campus Climate Survey is an assessment tool capturing academic, workplace, and physical environments as well as perceptions of faculty, staff, and students regarding age inclusivity.

• Clark, P. G. and S. N. Leedahl. 2019. Becoming and being an Age-Friendly University (AFU): Strategic considerations and practical implications. Gerontology & Geriatrics Education 40.2: 166–178.

  DOI: 10.1080/02701960.2019.1579714Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The University of Rhode Island is designated as an Age-Friendly University, and these authors share the strategies they used to advance the principles associated with the AFU movement. They discuss identifying existing practices, enlisting available supports, and embarking on a development process. They also present a conceptual framework to guide other universities considering or engaged in this process. Available online.

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• Cummins, P., J. Brown, P. Bahr, and N. Mehri. 2019. Heterogeneity of older learners in higher education. Adult Learning 30.1: 23–33.

  DOI: 10.1177/1045159518812077Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The authors studied enrollment trends by part and full time students aged 25 to 64 years in Ohio’s public postsecondary schools over an eight-year period. Findings indicate that adults are more likely to attend community colleges and have part-time enrollment. The authors present strategies to increase enrollment by this age group as well as to ensure their success, given the importance to the labor force and for future financial security. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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• Lumina Foundation. 2017. Strategic Plan for 2017–2020. Indianapolis, IN: Lumina Foundation.

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  This strategic plan is a useful example of an age-inclusive approach to educational needs of adults. As a response to the needs of the aging workforce, along with challenges that have arisen due to the pandemic, this strategic plan focuses on practical steps that can be taken to increase the skills of adults in a way that would benefit society, individuals, and the economy. Available online.

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• Montepare, J. 2019. Introduction to the special Issue-Age-Friendly Universities (AFU): Principles, practices, and opportunities. In Special issue: Age-Friendly Universities (AFU): Principles, practices, and opportunities. Gerontology & Geriatrics Education 40.2: 139–141.

  DOI: 10.1080/02701960.2019.1591848Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Given the demographic shifts of more older adults and fewer younger people, educational institutions will be well served to become more age diverse and age inclusive. In response to these social forces, an international collaborative, the Age-Friendly Global Network, has formed to promote this transformation. This special issue contains ideas and experiences from academic leaders across the country who are striving to advance age inclusion at their institutions. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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• Morrow-Howell, N., N. Galucia, E. Swinford, and T. Meyer. 2020. Challenges and opportunities of age diverse universities: Perspectives from admissions and career services. Gerontology & Geriatrics Education: 1–18.

  DOI: 10.1080/02701960.2020.1864345Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  To increase understanding about the challenges and opportunities of serving students mid-life and beyond, these researchers conducted focus groups with staff from career services and admissions offices at Washington University in St. Louis. Older students were recognized as being more intentional and more experienced than younger students; but they also faced challenges. Older students had a harder time socializing on campus and being current with online platforms; and they faced ageism in the classroom and the job market. Strategies to approach these challenges were enumerated. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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  • Medline

• Morrow-Howell, N., E. Lawlor, E. Macias, E. Swinford, and J. Brandt. 2020. Making the case for age-diverse universities. The Gerontologist 60.7: 1187–1193.

  DOI: 10.1093/geront/gnz181Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article reviews arguments as to why it is important for universities to become more age diverse in response to the demographic shifts in society. The arguments include the importance of education in later life for the economy, universities, and older adults themselves as well as potential positive outcomes in the arena of research and innovation and intergenerational connection. Available online.

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• Silverstein, N. M., S. K. Whitbourne, L. M. Bowen, et al. 2022. Assessing age inclusivity in higher education: Introducing the Age-Friendly Inventory and Campus Climate Survey. The Gerontologist 62.1: e48–e61.

  DOI: 10.1093/geront/gnab090Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article presents a theoretical framework and associated strategies to measure subjective and objective indicators of age-friendliness on university campuses. Preliminary data from applying the instruments to a large public institution suggest the usefulness of this approach in identifying strengths and barriers to moving toward age inclusivity. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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• Whitbourne, S., and J. Montepare. 2017. What’s holding us back? Ageism in higher education. In Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older persons. Edited by T. Nelson, 263–290. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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  This book chapter describes how ageism and age discrimination against older adults are present in institutions of higher education. The functions of this bias are described as they relate to every aspect of university life, from admission to graduation and entering the labor market. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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Civic Engagement

“Civic engagement” is a term that is used often in conjunction with productive engagement. Civic engagement includes mutual aid, volunteering, and community service as well as political participation; but the focus has largely been on volunteering and civic service. Thus, this literature is reviewed here because of its overlap with the productive engagement literature. When searching the literature on the term “civic engagement,” studies involving older age groups within the aging population have been conducted, including Kruse and Schmitt 2015; Leedahl, et al. 2017; and Rudnik, et al. 2020. Perhaps this is because civic engagement is a more inclusive term, beyond formal and informal volunteering; and the oldest age group may find alternative ways to be civically responsive in the face of age-related constraints. Serrat, et al. 2021 and Serrat, et al. 2020 provide useful systematic reviews of civic engagement in later life. Hirshorn and Settersten 2013 critiques the traditional assumptions about civic engagement in younger and older populations and offers an alternative life course approach that emphasizes dynamic trajectories and a significant variance within and across individuals.

• Hirshorn, B. A., and R. A. Settersten Jr. 2013. Civic involvement across the life course: Moving beyond age-based assumptions. Advances in Life Course Research 18.3: 199–211.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.alcr.2013.05.001Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  These scholars evaluated broad themes of civic engagement across many different stages of life. The authors focused on past research and perception of civic participation among young adults and older adults. The authors applied the life course perspective to understand civic engagement based the diversity of experiences across different cohorts. They advocated for future research that centers on individual attributes of people and different types of civic participation. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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  • Medline

• Kruse, A., and E. Schmitt. 2015. Shared responsibility and civic engagement in very old age. Research in Human Development 12.1–2: 133–148.

  DOI: 10.1080/15427609.2015.1010353Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  These scholars consider civic participation among older adults, specifically very old populations. The study highlighted that positive community engagement and intergenerational relationships often resulted in higher civic participation for very old participants. The authors also identified potential barriers to civic engagement in very old age, including negative perceptions of the very old by institutional workers and a lack of structures to encourage civic participation in the very old. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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• Leedahl, S. N., A. M. Sellon, and N. Gallopyn. 2017. Factors predicting civic engagement among older adult nursing home residents. Activities, Adaptation & Aging 41.3: 197–219.

  DOI: 10.1080/01924788.2017.1310581Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  These researchers collected survey data from 139 older adults in nursing homes to understand factors that may contribute to civic engagement. The authors identified the participant’s age and ability to perform activities of daily living as predictors of volunteer work. Additionally, residents were more likely to participate in the resident governing organizations if they had positive emotional health and were supported socially. Available online by purchase and subscription.

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• Rudnik, J., T. R. Patskanick, J. B. Miller, L. D’Ambrosio, and J. F. Coughlin. 2020. Hardly silent: Exploring civic engagement and participation among a panel of adults ages 85+. Journal of Gerontological Social Work 63.5: 392–411.

  DOI: 10.1080/01634372.2020.1766627Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  These researchers evaluated the relationship between modern technology and civic engagement in adults 85 years old and older. This study found that this population want to be engaged in social and political causes. The authors also determined that modern technology may provide the opportunity for more civic engagement among people 85 years old and older. Available online by purchase or subscription.

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  • Medline

• Serrat, R., T. Scharf, F. Villar, and C. Gómez. 2020. Fifty-five years of research into older people’s civic participation: Recent trends, future directions. The Gerontologist 60.1: e38–e51.

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  These authors evaluated past research and perceptions of civic engagement in older adults to identify themes and implications for future research. The scholars asserted that past research has focused too narrowly on group participation and presented a homogenous depiction of older adults. The article claims that research must study context of participation, diversity of adults, and process of and concepts related to civic engagement in older adults. Available online.

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• Serrat, R., T. Scharf, and F. Villar. 2021. Mapping civic engagement in later life: A scoping review of gerontological definitions and typology proposal. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations epub:1–12.

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  These scholars analyzed the ways that civic engagement in older adults is perceived, defined, and written about in recent aging research. The authors evaluated definitions of civic engagement and associated activities by reviewing available research. The review found that older adults contribute to their communities in many ways which results in diverse definitions and understandings of civic participation and engagement in this population. Available online.

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Patterns of Productive Activity

A limitation of the scholarship on productive engagement is that studies focus on one productive activity, like caregiving or working, without attention to the patterns of activities that exist. Certainly, these productive roles do not happen in isolation of other activities; and research needs to focus on patterns and identify balances of activities for maximal outcomes. More recent research is exploring how these various roles/activities are linked. Vidovićová 2018 documents that in the Czech Republic people between the ages of 50 to 70 have seven average roles, and the grandparent role was associated with the highest levels of happiness. Kim and Ferraro 2014 documents that the number of productive activities among US older adults, including volunteering, employment, attending meetings, and caregiving, was associated with reduced inflammation in the body. O’Reilly, et al. 2017 suggests that light caregivers who also volunteered had lower mortality than those who engaged in neither. Taniguchi 2012 documents that formal and informal volunteering do not compete but complement each other, given similar motivations of altruism or social pressure. However, the important question remains whether productive activities complement or compete with each other? Programs and policies must attend to transitions between and simultaneous involvement in productive activities.

• Kim, S., and K. F. Ferraro. 2014. Do productive activities reduce inflammation in later life? Multiple roles, frequency of activities, and C-reactive protein. The Gerontologist 54.5: 830–839.

  DOI: 10.1093/geront/gnt090Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Using survey data from the National Social Life, Health and Aging Project, these researchers examined the roles of caregiving, working, volunteering, and attending meetings in relation to a biomarker for risk of heart disease. They found that volunteering has the most positive health effects as a single activity; but the number of productive roles was associated with lower levels of risk for heart disease, controlling other life style and SES factors. Available online.

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• O’Reilly, D., M. Rosato, F. Ferry, J. Moriarty, and G. Leavy. 2017. Caregiving, volunteering or both? Comparing effects on health and mortality using census-based records from almost 250,000 people aged 65 and over. Age and Ageing 46.5: 821–826.

  DOI: 10.1093/ageing/afx017Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This population-based study in Ireland examined the effects of caregiving and volunteering on two health outcomes: presence of chronic conditions and mortality. The researchers document a large overlap in caregiving and volunteering activities but the associations of simultaneous engagement and health are mixed. The researchers conclude that there is evidence that combining volunteering with less intense caregiving activities is associated with lower mortality risk than associated with either activity alone. Available online.

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  • Medline

• Taniguchi, H. 2012. The determinants of formal and informal volunteering: Evidence from the American Time Use Survey. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations 23:920–939

  DOI: 10.1007/s11266-011-9236-ySave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Data from the 2009 American Time Use Survey was used to assess how time spent in various major life domains interrelated. The researcher looked at the time spent in paid work, education, domestic work, religious activities, formal volunteering, and informal volunteering. She documents that time dedicated to formal and informal volunteering is associated with time spent in other domains but concludes that informal and formal volunteering do not compete with each other. Available online.

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• Vidovićová, L. 2018. New roles for older people. Journal of Population Ageing 11.1: 1–6.

  DOI: 10.1007/s12062-017-9217-zSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This scholar studied people between the ages of 50 and 70 years old in the Czech Republic to document social roles. She found an average of seven roles, and roles with the highest levels of happiness were being a grandparent and being a friend. The role of worker was identified as the most stressful. Multiple roles were common and thus created complex experiences. Available online.

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