Rural Social Work in China

by

Hok Bun Ku, Qi Huadong, Zhang Heqing

• LAST MODIFIED: 25 September 2019
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195389678-0276

Introduction

In this article, “China” refers to “mainland China.” Social work as academic discipline was first introduced to China’s most important universities, such as Yenching University, in the 1920s. However, social work, like other social science disciplines, was labeled as “bourgeois pseudo-science” and removed from Chinese universities in the 1950s, based on the idea that there were no social problems in socialist China, and thus no need for social work education. After the introduction of the Open Door and Economic Reform policy in 1978, social science disciplines were gradually reestablished in universities in mainland China beginning in the late 1980s, after a lapse of over thirty years. China’s rapid social and economic transformation has created different social problems since the late 1970s. As a measure to alleviate emerging social problems, the return of social work programs was advocated by the Ministry of Civil Affairs and by leading academics, who saw the need to develop professional social workers to handle the increasingly complex social problems arising from rapid social and economic transitions. Thus, the Chinese government reintroduced social work education programs to the universities in the late 1980s, for the clear political mission of establishing social stability and a harmonious society. Peking University was the first higher educational institute to launch a social work program at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels in 1988. Gradually, other universities and cadre training colleges in China followed its lead. In China in 2018, there were 348 undergraduate social work programs and 150 master’s of social work (MSW) programs. In China’s specific context, rural social work is one of the major subfields of social work. As social work was developed in the Western urban context, when it was reintroduced to China, some of the Chinese social work educators were aware of the differences in cultural and societal context between China and the West. They emphasized the indigenization of social work in China, and rural social work was regarded as the major component of this effort. They also thought social development and poverty alleviation should be a major factor. For example, Professor Wang Sibin, a leading social work scholar from Peking University, opined that social development and poverty alleviation should be the primary focus of social work education in China, and that individualized practice should only constitute a supplementary and secondary role in the social work curriculum. This is the context and direction of rural social work development in China since it was reconstructed in the 1980s. However, even today, rural social work is underdeveloped in terms of academic research and publication. Most of the bibliographies are in Chinese, and very few academic papers have been published in English in the area of rural social work in China. Nonetheless, in this bibliography, priority will be given to English academic papers. Only important and high-quality Chinese articles will be cited.

Overview of Rural Social Work Development

A number of general overviews of China social work development have been published over the years. They include a doctoral dissertation, Wang 2012, as well as a book chapter, Yuen-Tsang, et al. 2014. But, as Meng, et al. 2019 states, due to the urban-based development of social work, the specific problems of rural China are often overlooked. Therefore, academic literature on the history of rural social work in China is rare, especially in English. A paper written by Meng and colleagues (Meng, et al. 2019) is the only English academic paper providing an overview of developmental issues and the emergence of social work practices in this context. Rural social work is very locality- and context-specific, and it needs to be critical to the application of a global definition of social work. There is a lack of fit between Western models and the local Chinese sociocultural context (Meng, et al. 2019). Several English articles on rural social work practice present the creation of indigenized knowledge and intervention to address context-specific problems. Literatures on rural welfare development in China are also reviewed and discussed by Western scholars. Therefore, as Meng and colleagues state, “Western knowledge and standards cannot be uncritically imported into China.” When developing rural social work in China, it must situate “Western remedial approaches within a broader framework of social development and community-based participation to devise local solutions for local problems” (Meng, et al. 2019, 8). Research-based social work practice in rural China, they argue, must effectively meet the needs of rural Chinese communities. Another overview of rural social work can be found in Bin 2009, which echoes the above view that rural social work in China is still in the exploratory stage, and its theory and method are underdeveloped. Guo and Li 2017 also reviews the historical development of rural social work in China, from different perspectives. Guo and Li used two keywords—“social work” and “rural social work”—to search the Chinese literature from 1 January 1990 to 31 December 2014, using the most powerful Chinese journal database (CNKI). They found 9,751 related articles, but only 108 serious academic papers related to rural social work in China. The topics include indigenous study on rural social work (23 articles), new rural development (21 articles), theory and method (14 articles), the rural social work practice model (12 articles), rural poverty alleviation (6 articles), rural pension (4 articles), peasant livelihood (4 articles), rural left-behind children (2 article), women’s development (1 article), and others (22 articles). Some scholars in China have also reviewed the research on rural social work. Li and Zhang 2017 explores the years 2006 to 2016. The authors found the main themes in rural social work research in China to be social work profession construction and research on practice models. They also discovered that “lack” and “strength” are two major perspectives in rural social work research. A cultural perspective has been developed by local scholars. Major debates in rural social work development revolve around the issues of professional mission (conciliation or reform), professional role (expert or partner), and practice approach (service-based or community based). Some scholars have discussed the future of rural social work in general.

• Bin, X. 2009. The future for rural social work in China. Rural Society 19.4: 280–282.

  DOI: 10.5172/rsj.351.19.4.280Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This is another short article that overviews rural social work development and two key rural social work practice models in China before 2009. It also highlights possible paths for rural social work intervention, directions for research, and education in rural social work.

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• Guo, Z., and Z. Li. 2017. The present situation, problems and prospect of rural social work in China (中国农村社会工作的发展现状、问题与前景展望). Social Construction (社会建设) 4.2: 45–57.

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  This is one of the few representative Chinese articles that points out the main challenges and opportunities existing in the development of rural social work in contemporary China.

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• Li, Q., and H. Zhang. 2017. Baby learn to walk: A review of rural social work research in China for ten years (2006–2016) (社工“学步”：中国农村社会工作研究十年评述2006–2016). Social Construction (社会建设) 4.1: 31–41.

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  This Chinese article reviews rural social work research in China from 2006 to 2016. It also highlights the main themes, perspectives, and debates of rural social work in China.

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• Meng, Q., M. Gray, L. Bradt, and G. Roets. 2019. Emergence of social work practice in rural China: A way forward? International Social Work 62.2: 933–943.

  DOI: 10.1177/0020872818755859Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This is an important article that critically reviews rural social work development in the socioeconomic context of China, and criticizes employing a Western-based social work approach. The paper also introduces the socioeconomic issues and challenges in rural China, which it argues are difficult to respond to using a Western approach.

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• Wang, S. 2017. The comprehensiveness and development of rural social work in China—Some thoughts on “great rural social work” (我国农村社会工作的综合性及其发展 — 兼 论 “大 农 村 社 会 工 作”). China Agricultural University Journal of Social Sciences (中国农业大学学报社会科学版) 34.3: 5–13.

  DOI: 10.13240/j.cnki.caujsse.20170427.001Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This Chinese paper comprehensively discusses the development of rural social work in China. It calls for a concept of “greater social work in rural areas” that follows a professional standard and flexibly uses professional skills to better serve rural residents and communities.

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• Wang, Y. 2012. A study of the professionalization process of social work in the Chinese mainland: Interaction of the state, the society and the academic community (1978–2006). PhD diss., Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ.

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  In this doctoral thesis, author uses the perspective of state-society to interpret the professionalization of social work on the Chinese mainland. The study provides a macro understanding of social work development in China.

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• Yuen-Tsang, A. W. K., H. B. Ku, and S. B. Wang. 2014. Social work education as a catalyst for social change and social development: Case study of a master of social work program in China. In Global social work: Crossing borders, blurring boundaries. Edited by Ca. Noble, H. Strauss and B. Littlechild, 283–300. Sydney: Sydney Univ. Press.

  DOI: 10.2307/j.ctv1fxm2q.24Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  By using a joint social work master’s degree program between Hong Kong Polytechnic University and Peking University as an example, the authors discuss how social work education promotes social change and social development.

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• Zhang, H. 2012. Rural problems and rural social work of China in the context of globalization (全球化背景下中国农村问题 与农村社会工作). Social Science Front (社会科学战线) 8:175–185.

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  This highly quoted Chinese paper puts China’s rural social work development in the context of globalization. It discusses the structural factors that have caused rural poverty and proposes an alternative model of rural social work practice.

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Rural Social Work Education

Although there were 348 universities with social work programs in 2018, very few universities offer courses in rural social work. To a certain extent, the situation of rural social work education reflects the situation of urban bias in China. The textbook is an important tool for social work education in China. Up until 2018, there were three textbooks on rural social work written by scholars from the Chinese mainland. Zhang, et al. 2008 is probably the first textbook on rural social work, and is a collective effort of many local scholars. The content covers historical background, theory, and skills of practice. Zhong, et al. 2011 and Shi, et al. 2015 are edited volumes, written by groups of educators from mainland China. However, as Guo and Li 2017 (cited under Overview of Rural Social Work Development) points out, the content of these textbooks is repetitive, unoriginal, and lacking innovation in indigenous theory and practice. Nevertheless, after thirty years of development, some scholars have reflected on rural social work education and written new textbooks. Of these, Gu 2018 identifies problems of economic reform and unsustainable development in the context of contemporary rural China. It also proposes an alternative development model based on the author’s own practice in rural China for fifteen years. Gu 2018 is also critical of Western theoretical perspectives and practice models. In terms of research methodology in particular, they intend to teach student to choose those methods suitable for rural social work in China. They emphasize action research as an innovative research methodology as well as a way of rural social work intervention. Some case studies on rural social work practice are demonstrated, including practices of gender empowerment, adult education, cultural development, and anti-poverty in rural China. In the area of rural social work education, Ku, et al. 2009 is the only paper directly relevant to rural social work practicum teaching in China. An innovative rural practice teaching model has been developed in China. Local scholars developed a triple capacity-building approach to rural social work practice teaching to challenge the conventional model of education. It emphasizes transforming students into reflexive subjects with critical thinking skills regarding society, power, inequality, and social change.

• Gu, X. 2018. Rural social work: Theory and practice (农村社会工作：理论与实践). Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press.

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  In contrast to the other textbooks, the author puts rural social work into the context of rural development in China since the rural economic reforms of the late 1970s. The problems of unsustainable development are identified. Western theoretical perspectives are critically reviewed and discussed, and rural social work practice models are introduced. The book also includes research methodology and four case studies of rural social work practice.

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• Ku, H. B., A. W. K. Yuen-Tsang, and H. C. Liu. 2009. Triple capacity building as critical pedagogy: A rural social work practicum in China. Journal of Transformative Education 7.2: 146–163.

  DOI: 10.1177/1541344610362256Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This is the first article to introduce the pedagogy and process of practicum teaching. It also covers social work educators’ reflections on the experience of using a triple capacity-building model to train students in community development work in a poor ethnic minority village in southwestern China.

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• Shi, T., G. Jiang, and T. Zhong. 2015. Rural social work (农村社会工作). Beijing: China Labor Social Security Press.

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  This textbook is divided into three parts. The first part introduces basic concepts of rural community work and social work; the second part reviews the historical development, practice context, and theoretical perspectives of rural social work; and the third part introduces five case studies of rural social work practice.

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• Zhang, H. Q, et al. 2008. Rural social work (农村社会工作). Beijing: High Education Press.

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  This edited volume is a collective effort by many local scholars. Chapters include an introduction to rural social work, historical context of rural social work, current context of rural social work, theoretical approaches to rural social work, professional value of rural social work, organizations of rural social work, major contents of rural social work, skill of rural social work practice, process of doing rural social work, and a rural social work in strength perspective.

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• Zhong, Z., et al. 2011. Rural social work (农村社会工作). Shanghai: Fudan Univ. Press.

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  This edited volume is divided into four parts, covering content and historical development of rural social work, skills of rural social work practice, practice of rural social work in different areas (e.g., anti-poverty, community development, disaster intervention, service for rural left-behind groups), and research on rural social work.

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Rural Social Welfare

While the rural population still makes up about 60 percent of China’s population, the literature on rural welfare is limited, especially in English academic writing. An overview of rural social welfare can be found in Hebel 2003. Dixon 1982 is a relatively old journal article that studies the rural welfare system from its beginnings in the early 1950s to the end of the 1970s. Selden 1999 discusses the issue of rural poverty in the reform period and highlights the reliable welfare system in Mao’s period. In the limited literature on rural social welfare, social security is a dominant perspective. Han and Huang 2019 examines the development of social welfare policy in rural China from a historical perspective. The authors point out that social welfare in rural China involves both formal and informal support provided by the state, NGOs, social work organization, and others, through cash, goods, in-kind services, transfers of payments and benefits, and other means. The historical background of social welfare development from Mao to the period of economic reform influences the welfare and well-being of rural people. The hukou system (household registration system) established in Mao’s era caused disparities in social provision and protection as well as inequalities in entitlement between rural and urban residents.

• Dixon, J. 1982. The community-based rural welfare system in the People’s Republic of China: 1949–1979. Community Development Journal 17.1: 2–12.

  DOI: 10.1093/cdj/17.1.2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The paper traces the development of China’s rural welfare system from its beginnings in the early 1950s to the end of the 1970s. The rural cooperative welfare system in the Mao period has been a significant model of rural welfare in China and the world.

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• Han, Y., and J. Huang. 2019. Evolution of social welfare in rural China: A developmental approach. International Social Work 62.1: 390–404.

  DOI: 10.1177/0020872817731140Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article comprehensively explores the evolution of welfare services in rural China, using a historical perspective. The authors find that diverse approaches have been implemented to provide social services for rural residents, with complicated dynamics among different providers, following a path different from that in the West.

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• Hebel, J. 2003. Social welfare in rural China. Journal of Peasant Studies 30.3: 224–251.

  DOI: 10.1080/03066150412331311289Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  In this article, different approaches and issues of social welfare in rural China are reviewed and discussed.

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• Selden, M. 1999. Poverty alleviation, inequality and welfare in rural China. Economic and Political Weekly 34.45: 3183–3190.

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  This article discusses poverty and inequality issues in rural China in the economic reform era, and highlights the importance of effective and reliable welfare and pension programs.

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Indigenous Practice Models

Although the development of social work in rural China is in its beginning phase, practice models are emerging. However, it is difficult to find English works about the practice of rural social work in China. Li and Zhang 2017 overviews rural social work research over a ten-year period and finds that indigenous practice research is limited. Guo and Li 2017 states that there are three important practice models often introduced and quoted by local scholars. These practice models are developed by local scholars and address different issues in rural China. Yang, et al. 2013 overviews one of the important models, the Lvgeng model, which was developed at Hong Kong Polytechnic University and Yunnan University. Zhang, et al. 2008 introduces the “Rural-Urban Alliance” model, which was developed and consolidated over a period of eighteen years, from 2001 to 2018, based on the action research projects led by Hong Kong Polytechnic University, which partnered with different local universities in mainland China (Yunnan University, Sun Yat-sen University, Sichuan Agricultural University, and Peking University). Zhang 2012 shows that rural poverty and the food crisis are related to unsustainable agricultural development in China. In view of this finding, the research team endeavored to explore alternative ways and generate practical knowledge to reduce the adverse consequences of social transformation and improve the life situations of marginal groups in rural China. Zhang, et al. 2008 discusses a strength perspective of rural social work in the context of China’s economy, based on seven years of experience in a village called Lvzhai. The authors argue this practice model goes beyond the debate between macro (radical) and micro (clinical) social work, and emphasizes developing the capacity of local people and exploring the assets of the community. Shi and Jiang 2014 demonstrate the practice of the Xiangxi model, developed by a group of educators from Changsha Social Work College. Influenced by Hong Kong Polytechnic University, the authors emphasize capacity building and community-based rural development. As with the Lvgeng model, they built up social work stations in villages and developed villager organizations. The core feature of their practice is constructing a rural social-support network. Chen 2014 introduces another representative practice model of rural social work that is often introduced in rural social work literatures, called the Wanzai model, which was initiated by the local government through establishing social service centers and providing services for local people in Waizhai County, Jiangxi Province, and employing professionally qualified social workers, indigenous social workers, and volunteers.

• Chen, X. 2014. Innovation social work in new countryside construction—An example of the Wanzai model (新农村建设中的社会工作创新 – 以江西万载模式为例). Jiangxi Social Sciences (江西社会科学) 6:218–222.

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  This paper introduces the practice model of Wanzai. It emphasizes the effort of the government and the building of local social work in rural communities.

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• Guo, Z., and Z. Li. 2017. The present situation, problems and prospect of rural social work in China (中国农村社会工作的发展现状、问题与前景展望). Social Construction (社会建设) 4.2: 45–57.

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  In this paper, the authors discuss the local rural social work practice models.

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• Li, Q., and H. Zhang. 2017. Baby learn to walk: A review of rural social work research in China for ten years (2006–2016) (社工 “学步”：中国农村社会工作研究十年评述 2006–2016). Social Construction (社会建设) 4.1: 31–41.

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  Several important models of rural social work practice are introduced in this paper.

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• Shi, T., and G. Jiang. 2014. Social service for rural left-behind people in the perspective of community building (社区营造视野下的农村留守人员社会工作服务). China Social Work (中国社会工作) 186: 17–19.

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  This short paper introduces how rural social work serves rural left-behind groups by using the Xiangxi model.

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• Yang, X., H. Zhang, and X. Gu. 2013. The exploratory journey of Lvgeng Chinese rural social work (绿耕中国农村社会工作探索之路). China Social Work (中国社会工作) 150:16–19.

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  This is a historical review article about developing the Lvgeng model.

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• Zhang, H. 2012. Rural problems and rural social work of China in the context of globalization (全球化背景下中国农村问题 与农村社会工作). Social Science Front (社会科学战线) 8:175–185.

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  The paper discusses the structural factors caused rural poverty and proposes Rural-Urban Alliance and fair trade as an alternative model of rural social work practice to tackle the problem of rural development.

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• Zhang, H., X. Yang, and X. Gu. 2008. Strength perspective in rural social work: A practical model of capacity and assets building in rural China (优势视角下的农村社会工作 – 以能力建设和资产建立为核心的农村社会工作实践模式). Sociological Studies 6:174–193.

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  In this paper, the authors first introduce the development of rural social work in Western societies, and then clarify two perspectives on rural social work. They demonstrate their experimentation in rural social work by using the Rural-Urban Alliance model and fair trade in Yunnan province from 2007–2008.

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Green Social Work and Rural Development

Green social work is a new theoretical perspective that emphasizes connecting social justice and environmental justice. Dominelli and Ku 2017 highlights the importance of “green” in the age of environmental crisis, both in China and the world. The authors argue that green social work practice goes beyond the logic of capitalism and emphasizes social justice, democracy, and collectivism. They suggest social work practice can respond to the environmental crisis caused by unsustainable development. In the literature of rural social work practice, one finds that some rural social work projects in China are doing some things that green social work emphasizes. In English articles, scholars begin to present their projects using the perspective of green social work. Ku and Yan 2018 presents a project that encouraged local villagers to return to organic farming, and to use local materials and indigenous craftsmanship to produce ethnic arts and crafts for sale in urban markets, thus generating not only cash income, but also a sense of renewed pride and identity, leading to stronger community participation in local culture preservation and greater resilience to the erosion of traditional community life brought on by global socioeconomic forces. Based on the literature, some green social work practices are taking place in disaster-affected rural areas. Ku and Dominelli 2018 shows how rural social workers can move beyond disaster intervention and try to restore local livelihoods of the local community. It also tackles the issue of spatial justice and environmental sustainability through creating green community development over the long term.

• Dominelli, L., and H. B. Ku. 2017. Green social work and its implications for social development in China. China Journal of Social Work 10.1: 3–22.

  DOI: 10.1080/17525098.2017.1300338Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper describes the environmental crisis on the Chinese mainland. It also introduces the idea of green social work and discusses the implications of green social work for social development in China in the context of environmental crises precipitated by the country’s rapid economic development.

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• Ku, H. B., and L. Dominelli. 2018. Not only eating together: Space and green social work intervention in a hazard-affected area in Ya’an, Sichuan of China. British Journal of Social Work 48:1409–1431.

  DOI: 10.1093/bjsw/bcx071Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper introduces a participatory action research project in a post-disaster community in Ya’an, Sichuan, China. It focuses on describing the participatory design process and argues for the importance of green social work and transdisciplinary interventions in post-disaster community reconstruction.

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• Ku, H. B., and H. Yan. 2018. The food security crisis and CSA movement in China: Green social work practice in Yunnan Province. In The Routledge Handbook of Green Social Work. Edited by Lena Dominelli, 206–216. London: Routledge.

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  This paper explains the causes of the food security crisis on the Chinese mainland, and introduces how rural social workers organized a movement of community supported agriculture (CSA) in Yunnan in responding to the crisis.

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Disaster Social Work in Rural Areas

On 12 May 2008, an 8.0 magnitude earthquake struck Sichuan Province, a mountainous region in western China, in which nearly 70,000 people died, 18,000 went missing, and over 15 million people were affected. Where physical infrastructures are concerned, 21 million buildings were damaged and 7,000 schools were destroyed (Ku and Ma 2015). As a helping profession, social work in Western societies has a long history in dealing with the aftermath of natural disasters such as hurricanes, tsunamis, earthquakes, and snowstorms. Pei, et al. 2009 introduces social work in China as a newly emerged profession that is much less prepared to respond to natural disasters. Prior to the 12 May (or 5/12) Sichuan earthquake, social work intervention in managing disasters simply did not appear in the academic or practice agenda of social work training. Not surprisingly, when the Sichuan earthquake struck, few social workers in China were ready to work with the disaster-affected communities. The disaster social work intervention shown in Pei, et al. 2009 tells us that although Chinese social workers sought to borrow from foreign experiences, their practices are contextualized and their intervention approaches are different from their Western counterparts, especially in the context of a rural ethnic minority region. Some studies on rural social work cover the area of disaster social work. Both Pei, et al. 2009 and Ting and Chen 2012 show us that social workers in China have faced tremendous difficulties, particularly when they initially did not have the legitimacy nor the recognition from local community members as professionals to engage in their practice. Ku 2011 shows how some rural social workers in disaster-affected areas have creatively generated a new model of disaster intervention by integrating indigenous practice models of rural social work. Ku and Ma 2015 looks at project teams that have participated over the past ten years in post-disaster community reconstruction in rural Sichuan. They applied the “Rural-Urban Alliance” model generated from Guizhou and Yunnan to post-disaster community rebuilding. Ku and Dominelli 2018 introduces another group of local social workers engaged into post-Ya’an earthquake rebuilding who have developed an indigenous model called the “Green Social Work Spatial Intervention” model, which involves social entrepreneurship, rebuilding community space, organizing production, and developing urban markets for indigenous crafts. Their work has made positive contributions to the social and economic well-being of families in the disaster-affected rural community.

• Ku, H. B. 2011. ‘Yingxiu Mother’ as agent of development—A case study of rural social work intervention in a Sichuan post-disaster community in China. Korean Journal of Rural Welfare Studies 7:33–54.

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  In this paper, by using the case of the Yingxiu Mother Embroidery Project, the author illustrates how rural social workers facilitated a women’s embroidery project by invigorating women’s participation in healing the post‐disaster trauma, improving their livelihood, and the enhancement of local capacity.

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• Ku, H. B., and L. Dominelli. 2018. Not only eating together: Space and green social work intervention in a hazard-affected area in Ya’an, Sichuan of China. British Journal of Social Work 48:1409–1431.

  DOI: 10.1093/bjsw/bcx071Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper demonstrates how rural social workers operated hand in hand with architects to explore an alternative model of post-disaster community reconstruction. In the paper, we can see that the research team facilitated the formation of a community kitchen project that enabled villagers to create a new building and co-operative organizations for the village’s long-term sustainable development.

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• Ku, H. B., and Y. Ma. 2015. ‘Rural-Urban Alliance’ as a new model for post-disaster social work intervention in community reconstruction—the case in Sichuan, China. International Social Work 58.5: 743–758.

  DOI: 10.1177/0020872815583073Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A case study of rural social work practice in a disaster-affected area. Authors demonstrate how they worked together with the local community, implementing ‘Rural-Urban Alliance’ as an alternative model of community reconstruction. This article examines the role of social workers in disaster intervention, the theoretical background of the new model, and the history of the intervention itself.

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• Pei, Y., He Zhang, and H. Ku. 2009. Guangzhou social workers in Yingxiu: A case study of social work intervention in the aftermath of the Sichuan 5.12 earthquake in China. China Journal of Social Work 2.3: 151–163.

  DOI: 10.1080/17525090903211705Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  In this paper, the authors describe their experiences working in the post-earthquake rural community, including the theoretical approach they adopted to realize their objectives. The challenges and opportunities of the social work profession are highlighted in the field of disaster management. They argue that rural social workers in China should adopt a holistic approach to disaster intervention and act as promoters of psychological well-being in the community, needs appraisers, capacity builders, and social resource mediators.

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• Ting, W. F., and H. Chen. 2012. The alternative model of development: The practice of community economy in disaster-stricken Sichuan. China Journal of Social Work 5.1: 3–24.

  DOI: 10.1080/17525098.2012.658609Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  In this paper, the evolution, implementation, and outcome of alternative models of development/redevelopment, which attempt to help the reconstruction of disaster-affected rural communities, are described and discussed. Implications and recommendations are also drawn for similar community endeavors in the context of global (economic) development.

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Culture and Rural Social Work

In China, the rural population still makes up nearly 60 percent of the total population. In remote rural areas, the residents are ethnic minorities. In the development process, despite governmental efforts of rural reform, China’s rapid integration into the global capitalist economy has in fact made the rural poor more vulnerable, especially in ethnic minority regions. Ku 2011 indicates the rural population is suffering from not only financial hardships, but also other forms of deprivation, such as the loss of cultural identity. Thus, how to enhance the cultural confidence and identity of those in rural areas becomes the core issue of rural social work. Ku and Ip 2011 is one of the English writings presented on how rural social work has responded to the cultural issue of ethnic minorities in rural areas. In the papers published in China Journal of Social Work and Action Research, we can find those action research projects that are moving toward the intended goals of building capacity and enhancing the financial situation of local people. The most gratifying achievements are the establishment of a core group of committed and motivated villagers who are keen to develop the project, the increased sense of solidarity and social cohesion among the local villagers, and the growth of confidence and pride. Through this highly participative and empowering process, many villagers have regained their sense of control over their own destiny and have developed a much stronger sense of identification with their cultural heritage. However, some authors also seriously reflect the cultural illiteracy of rural social workers in ethnic minority villages in their work. Gu, et al. 2007 argues that professional knowledge may cause rural social work intervention to be ineffective because professional social workers trained in the city lack cultural competence in working with rural ethnic minority communities. The authors argue that if rural social workers are insensitive to the local culture and context, professional knowledge can be useless to the local people, or, even worse, if not handled carefully, it can become a cultural invasion into the local community.

• Gu, X., H. Zhang, and X. Yang. 2007. Professional trap and cultural illiteracy: A reflection on rural social work practice in Southwest China (专业限制与文化识盲：农村社会工作实践中的文化问题). Sociological Studies （社会学研究） 6:161–179.

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  This paper is based on an action research project to test the capacity-building model in a village in southwestern China, which aims at developing a rural social work education and practice model in the context of the Chinese mainland. It includes reflections about the social workers’ cultural illiteracy and professional limitations in working with ethnic minorities in rural China.

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• Ku, H. B. 2011. Happiness being like a blooming flower: An action research of rural social work in an ethnic minority community of Yunnan Province, PRC. Action Research 9.4: 344–369.

  DOI: 10.1177/1476750311402227Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article first describes the dilemma of China’s rural development, and it then demonstrates how rural social workers worked together with local women to form a handicraft group to preserve and develop indigenous cultural artifacts and crafts, aiming to enhance the women’s income, promote a new form of collectivism, protect the Zhuang ethnic minority traditional culture, and strengthen local cultural identity and confidence.

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• Ku, H. B., and D. Ip. 2011. Designing development: A case study of community economy in Pingzhai, Yunnan Province, in PRC. China Journal of Social Work 4.3: 235–254.

  DOI: 10.1080/17525098.2011.614394Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper describes how social work engaged a local community in a project of local culture preservation, and how it enhanced the pride and identity of an ethnicity minority.

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Women and Rural Social Work

Gender inequality is a common phenomenon in the world, especially in developing countries. The majority of the working poor are women. In rural China, as in other parts of the world, poor women find it difficult to obtain capital or enhance their family income. Responding to women’s poverty and enhancing their confidence are important tasks of rural social work. The number of general overviews of women, gender, and development in rural China has grown dramatically since the Fourth World Women’s Conference was held in Beijing in 1995. They include books such as Bossen 2002 and Jacka 2007, which are intended to introduce different approaches for women and development in China. This has now become a big area in the field of women and rural development in China. However, the concept of social work does not appear in the above-mentioned books and articles. Narrowing down the literature to rural social work practice, there are few studies of rural social work and women empowerment. In those articles that examine the concept of “rural social work,” the focus is on applying social work perspective and skill in empowering rural women. Li, et al. 2001 emphasizes capacity-building and enhancing the economic competence of local women through the establishment of women’s organizations. Yang 2016 demonstrates, through a highly participative and empowering process, how women have regained their sense of control over their own destiny and have developed a much stronger sense of identification with their cultural heritage. Ku 2011a shows that the processes of capacity-building and empowerment do not take place only through individual, but also via collective, pathways. What is also significant about the experience of the women is that they have shown the special place of cultural tradition in development, especially in terms of providing cultural pride, identity, and existential meanings, all of which are considered foundational attributes upon which social development is built. Examples of working with local women in rural China is shown in Ku 2011a; Ku 2011b; and Yan, et al. 2017.

• Bossen, L. 2002. Chinese women and rural development: Sixty years of change in Lu Village, Yunnan. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

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  This is a case study of women and development in rural China, studying sixty years of economic, political, and social change in a remote village in Yunnan Province. It constitutes a major contribution to our understanding of women, gender, and rural development within and beyond China.

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• Jacka, T. 2007. Approaches to women and development in rural China. Journal of Contemporary China 15.49: 585–602.

  DOI: 10.1080/10670560600836564Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper analyzes the language, concepts, and approaches taken by the Chinese women’s movement to women and rural development.

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• Ku, H. B. 2011a. Happiness being like a blooming flower: An action research of rural social work in an ethnic minority community of Yunnan Province, PRC. Action Research 9.4: 344–369.

  DOI: 10.1177/1476750311402227Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article demonstrates how rural social work initiated an economic project with the objectives of preserving traditional culture, enhancing women’s pride and confidence, and increasing women’s income through a new form of collectivism.

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• Ku, H. B. 2011b. ‘Yingxiu Mother’ as agent of development—A case study of rural social work intervention in a Sichuan post-disaster community in China. Korean Journal of Rural Welfare Studies 7:33–54.

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  In this paper, in the context of post-disaster community rebuilding, the author illustrates how rural social workers facilitated a women’s embroidery project with the aims of healing the post‐disaster trauma, improving their livelihood, and the enhancement of local capacity.

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• Li, V. C., W. Shaoxian, W. Kunyi, et al. 2001. Capacity building to improve women’s health in rural China. Social Science and Medicine 52.2: 279–292.

  DOI: 10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00132-5Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article describes how the Women’s Reproductive Health and Development Program created new methods to improve women’s health. It also describes the processes used in two local counties to assess local conditions and needs, and the supported and expanded local efforts in improving woman’s reproductive and family health that resulted from the processes.

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• Yan, H., Y. Guo, and X. Gu. 2017. Cooperative economy, collective labour and rural women: A village hotel in South China (合作经济、集体劳动与农村妇女： 一个华南村落的乡村旅舍实践案例). Journal of Chinese Women Studies (中国妇女论丛) 6.144: 36–47.

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  This paper shows how rural social workers worked with women to form a rural cooperative through rebuilding a collective guest house. It demonstrates a new form of cooperative economy and women’s organization in a village in Guangdong.

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• Yang, L. 2016. Empowered or disempowered? Women’s participation in a development project in rural China. Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 18.3: 38–67.

  DOI: 10.1080/12259276.2012.11666131Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper introduces international and local NGOs’ work in improving the lives of rural women by using an empowerment approach.

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Rural Social Services

One of the foremost social problems haunting China is rural poverty. Poverty in rural villages has been accelerated by market globalization and China’s entry to the WTO. In 2012 a reported 167 million migrant workers left their villages because of rural poverty to take up low-paying jobs in urban cities. As a consequence of rural-urban migration, many villages are left with only children, elderly, and the handicapped, creating acute social disintegration and social problems. While the Chinese government has already launched programs to combat rural poverty at the macro level, and has made impressive progress in rural poverty reduction, most of the efforts are directed toward economic development and income generation, and relatively little attention has been devoted to social and community development using social work approaches. However, studies of rural social work concerning anti-poverty programs, left-behind children services, and elderly services have dramatically increased in Chinese writing. Ku 2011 shows an alternative way of poverty eradication through preserving and developing indigenous cultural artifacts and crafts that are available for market consumption. Yan, et al. 2017 also demonstrates how rural social work has invigorated community participation and facilitated rural social work systematically. Xu 2018 overviews different pathways of anti-poverty through rural social work. Services for left-behind children are examined in Hu, et al. 2016 and Lin, et al. 2014. Wang and Rui 2018 discusses the way social work intervention in poverty alleviation has been targeted at the rural elderly.

• Hu, Y., B. Lonne, and J. Burton. 2016. The social exclusion of children left behind in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development 26.2–3: 77–87.

  DOI: 10.1080/02185385.2016.1218360Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper examines the social exclusion of rural left-behind children based on a qualitative inquiry with twenty-three Chinese caregivers and five school personnel. It highlights the social and emotional well-being and education outcomes of this group of children. It also calls for social work interventions to support families and communities and meet children’s needs.

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• Ku, H. B. 2011. Happiness being like a blooming flower: An action research of rural social work in an ethnic minority community of Yunnan Province, PRC. Action Research 9.4: 344–369.

  DOI: 10.1177/1476750311402227Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article demonstrates how rural social work tackles women’s poverty by encouraging women to form handicraft groups and create new marketable products. Social work intervention for rural elderly living in poverty is discussed in Wang and Rui 2018 as well.

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• Lin, K., P. Yin, and N. Loubere. 2014. Social support and the “left behind” elderly in rural China: A case study from Jiangxi province. Journal of Community Health 39:674–681.

  DOI: 10.1007/s10900-014-9864-4Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This study examines the living situation of elderly people in rural China whose children have left to work in other areas, and explores the policy implications associated with their care.

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• Wang, S., and J. Rui. 2018. The dilemma and outlet of social work intervention in poverty alleviation targeted at the rural elderly—based on the investigation of Y village in Z county (社会工作介入农村老年精准脱贫的困境与出路 —基于 Z 县 Y 村的调查). Journal of Sichuan University of Science & Engineering (四川理工大学学报) 33.4: 1–18.

  DOI: 10.11965/xbew20180401Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Based on an investigation in Y village in Z County, this article explores rural social work strategies of poverty alleviation for the rural elderly.

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• Xu, J. 2018. Exploration of pathways for rural social work in anti-poverty (农村社会工作介入精准扶贫的路径探讨). New West (新西部) 1:15–16.

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  This short paper explores the pathways of rural social work in anti-poverty. It emphasizes community-based capacity-building and empowerment.

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• Yan, H., Y. Guo, and X. Gu. 2017. Cooperative economy, collective labour and rural women: A village hotel in south China (合作经济、集体劳动与农村妇女： 一个华南村落的乡村旅舍实践案例). Journal of Chinese Women Studies (中国妇女论丛) 6.144: 36–47.

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  This paper describes a rural social work intervention in anti-poverty through forming a cooperative economy and women’s organization in a village in Guangdong. Ecotourism can be a good way to generate income for rural women.

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