Paul

by

Jerry L. Sumney

• LAST REVIEWED: 11 May 2023
• LAST MODIFIED: 27 September 2017
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195393361-0046

Introduction

Paul is one of the most important figures in the earliest church. Although he was not a follower during the ministry of Jesus, he came to be recognized as an apostle. Seemingly the most successful missionary of the church during its first few decades, his converts were mostly non-Jews. He was not the first to admit gentiles into the church, but his work among them and his understanding of how they participate as full members permanently shape the history of the church. Paul is also the author of the earliest extant writings from the church. He begins writing his letters to churches approximately twenty years before the earliest of the canonical Gospels was composed. He is, then, a valuable source of information about the situation and beliefs of the earliest churches. Pauline studies have experienced several important shifts since the middle of the 20th century, even as the work of F. C. Baur continues to exert extraordinary influence. The groundbreaking work of E. P. Sanders on 1st-century Judaism has affected nearly every aspect of Pauline studies. Sanders’s view of Judaism supported new discussions about Paul’s theology, particularly some growing doubts about identifying justification by faith as its center. J. C. Beker’s emphasis on the contextual nature of Paul’s theologizing and the importance of eschatology for Paul began a move to examine the theology of each letter individually before producing a theology of the whole corpus. Sanders’s work also made room for a reexamination of the relationship between Paul’s churches and the synagogue, with most scholars seeing a closer relationship than had been hypothesized previously. Other developments in Pauline studies include the recognition of a closer relationship between Paul’s theology and his ethical instructions. Studies of ancient letters discovered since the 1920s opened ways to analyze the structure and categorize Paul’s writings by comparing them with contemporaneous materials. New methodologies were also introduced, particularly in understanding the social and cultural context of the letters. Methods from anthropology and postcolonial studies have shifted understandings of Paul’s stance with respect to Greco-Roman culture and the Roman Empire, such that he is often seen to possess a more countercultural stance. The rise of narrative theology contributed to a new interest in investigating the way Paul uses Israel’s Scriptures in his argumentation. Finally, there has been a renewed interest in a rhetorical analysis of Paul’s letters, with some scholars using ancient rhetorical categories; others, the “new rhetoric”; and still others devising distinctive methodologies.

General Overviews

Monographs that propose an overall understanding of Paul and his theology have been a part of Pauline studies from the inception of the discipline. The range of reconstructions is at least as broad as proposals about the historical Jesus, and they have been just as influenced by the cultural and theological presuppositions of the interpreters. In varying ways, reconstructions of Paul’s life and thought in the 19th and 20th centuries have been responses to Baur 2003 (originally published in 1873–1875). F. C. Baur’s powerful work set Paul and “Jewish Christianity” in opposition. British scholarship generally rejected the more radical elements of this view, arguing for more unity in the church. Bruce 2000 (originally published in 1977) belongs to this tradition of interpretation. Deissmann 1972 (originally published in 1911) takes a different approach, looking outside the church for the best means to understand Paul, setting him in the context of Hellenistic culture and religions. In the late 20th century, more interpreters (including in Segal 1990 and Boyarin 1994) have set Paul more in the context of his place within, or in relation to, Judaism. Meeks and Fitzgerald 2007 and Dunn 2003 each address a wide range of individual issues, helping readers see the state of scholarship in the field.

• Baur, F. C. Paul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ: His Life and Works, His Epistles and Teachings. 2 vols. Translated by Allan Menzies. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003.

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  Originally published in 1873–1875, this modern critical study of Paul takes its start from Baur’s work. Others had questioned the authorship of various Pauline letters, but Baur brings such doubts into a coherent system for understanding Paul’s life and teaching. Basing his reconstruction on Hegelian presuppositions, Baur argues that Pauline (gentile) Christianity and Petrine (Jewish) Christianity were opposites that later merged into early Catholic Christianity.

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• Boyarin, Daniel. A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity. Contraversions 1. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.

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  Boyarin sees Paul as trying to define a new identity for Christians, an identity that draws on the Greek search for universals; thus, Paul opts for sameness over difference when determining the proper identity for Christians. This is the central difference between Paul and rabbinic Judaism. Paul’s insistence on sameness demands the eradication of difference, in Boyarin’s reading.

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• Bruce, F. F. Paul, Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000.

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  Originally published in 1977. Bruce constructs a traditional image of Paul and his message. This view of Paul was more common before the debates that followed (see Sanders 1977, cited under Judaism).

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• Deissmann, Adolf. Paul, a Study in Social and Religious History. 2d ed. Translated by William E. Wilson. Gloucester, MA: Smith, 1972.

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  Originally published in 1911, this biography of Paul and study of his theology tries to set him firmly into his 1st-century Greco-Roman context. Deissmann begins his study with Paul’s letters (which he distinguishes from literary epistles) but also draws information from Acts. The author rejects the view that identifies Paul as the founder of Christianity.

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• Dunn, James D. G., ed. The Cambridge Companion to St. Paul. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

  DOI: 10.1017/CCOL0521781558Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This volume provides a selective review of issues in Pauline studies, written by a wide range of Pauline scholars. It has a section on Paul’s life, one that introduces each Pauline letter, and another that looks at reception of Paul in the ancient and modern eras. It also contains a general bibliography on Paul and short bibliographies for each letter.

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• Meeks, Wayne A., and John T. Fitzgerald, eds. The Writings of St. Paul: Annotated Texts, Reception and Criticism. 2d ed. Norton Critical Editions. New York: Norton, 2007.

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  This volume contains the Today’s New International Version (TNIV) translation of the Pauline corpus, followed by some texts outside the canon that claim Paul as author. The text then provides excerpts about Paul and various issues in his thought from ancient writers, as well as samples of more-recent scholarship on those matters. It also includes a bibliography for those beginning serious study.

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• Segal, Alan F. Paul the Convert: The Apostolate and Apostasy of Saul the Pharisee. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.

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  Segal sets Paul’s life and theology in his Jewish context, seeing Paul as a primary source for understanding 1st-century Judaism; Paul did not believe he had left Judaism but did change his primary religious community to a different sect within Judaism. Segal rejects the idea that Paul sees one covenant for Jews and another for gentiles.

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Bibliographies

These bibliographies include general bibliographies on Paul as well as some bibliographies on specific aspects of Pauline studies. Metzger 1970 makes the early works of modern scholarship available in a way other indexes do not; most of the other indexes are more selective both in their choice of materials and in their subject matter. Furnish 1989, Porter 1996, and Porter 1997 each constitute an essay that discusses developments in various aspects of Pauline studies before providing significant bibliographies on those topics. Seifrid and Tan 2002 has more-extensive annotated bibliographies as well as individual bibliographies for each Pauline letter, including descriptions of commentaries. The other bibliographies focus on a single aspect. The Paul Page traces the development of the “New Perspective,” and Willis 1996 does the same for ethics, as does the Pistis Christou Bibliography, for the burgeoning discussion of the meaning of pistis Christou. Both Watson and Hauser 1994 (on rhetoric) and Paul and Scripture Seminar of the Society of Biblical Literature on Wikindx treat newly emergent types of investigation of Paul’s letters.

• Furnish, Victor Paul. “Pauline Studies.” In The New Testament and Its Modern Interpreters. Edited by Eldon Jay Epp and George W. MacRae, 321–350. Bible and Its Modern Interpreters 3. Atlanta: Scholars, 1989.

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  This essay includes a discussion of important areas of research in Pauline studies since the mid-20th century, as well as a bibliography of important works for that period.

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• Mattison, Mark, ed. The Paul Page.

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  This reliable website discusses the various ways the understanding of Paul and Judaism, sparked by the work of E. P. Sanders (commonly called the New Perspective; see Judaism), has developed. It includes a substantial bibliography on the New Perspective. It also contains materials from the Radical New Perspective and on “Paul and Empire,” including work not published elsewhere.

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• Metzger, Bruce M. Index to Periodical Literature on the Apostle Paul. 2d ed. New Testament Tools and Studies 1. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1970.

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  This volume indexes all articles on Paul from more than 120 journals in fourteen languages, from the first issue of the journal through the end of 1957. The text indexes many types of journals, including all the leading academic publications. An invaluable resource for investigation of the history of research in Pauline studies.

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• Paul and Scripture Seminar of the Society of Biblical Literature. Wikindx.

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  This extensive bibliography covers all aspects of the discussion of Paul’s use of Scripture. The project was led by Bruce Fisk and Christopher Stanley.

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• Pistis Christou Bibliography.

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  This bibliography takes in all perspectives on pistis Christou (“faith in Christ” or “faithfulness of Christ”). Its author is unknown (except by his given name); thus, it is not a source to which one should usually turn. However, the bibliography’s breadth can well serve users who recognize that some entries primarily repeat what others have said.

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• Porter, Stanley E. “Understanding Pauline Studies: An Assessment of Recent Research; Part One.” Themelios 22.1 (1996): 14–25.

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  Porter offers an account of the direction of Pauline scholarship from 1991 through 1995, but he discusses many works from the 1980s as well. He selects a series of topics and comments on works (mostly monographs) that are representative of the emphases he sees developing in the field.

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• Porter, Stanley E. “Understanding Pauline Studies: An Assessment of Recent Research (Part Two).” Themelios 22.2 (1997): 13–24.

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  Porter provides a bibliography and summary of works on each Pauline letter written between 1991 and 1995, but he discusses many works from the 1980s as well.

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• Seifrid, Mark A., and Randall K. J. Tan. The Pauline Writings: An Annotated Bibliography. IBR Bibliographies 9. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002.

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  This volume provides annotated bibliographies on theological and historical topics. It also incorporates such bibliographies for each Pauline letter, including listings of commentaries.

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• Watson, Duane F., and Alan J. Hauser. Rhetorical Criticism of the Bible: A Comprehensive Bibliography with Notes on History and Method. Biblical Interpretation 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1994.

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  This volume offers an extensive bibliography on the use of rhetorical criticism on biblical texts. See pp. 178–202, which focus on Paul.

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• Willis, Wendell L. “Bibliography: Pauline Ethics, 1964–1994.” In Theology and Ethics in Paul and His Interpreters: Essays in Honor of Victor Paul Furnish. Edited by Eugene H. Lovering and Jerry L. Sumney, 306–319. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.

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  This bibliographic essay on Pauline ethics picks up in 1964, where the bibliography in Victor Furnish’s influential Theology and Ethics in Paul stops. The essay traces themes and developments in the study of Pauline ethics from 1964 to 1994.

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Chronology of Paul’s Life

Throughout most of the 19th century, studies of the chronology of Paul’s life relied on Acts for their outline. In the 20th century, interpreters gave more attention to the distinction between Paul’s letters as primary sources and Acts as a secondary source. This led all but the most conservative of interpreters to base their chronologies on the letters, but there remains a range of positions on how interpreters should use Acts. Knox 1987 and Lüdemann 1984 argue that Acts should not be used at all because the information in Acts and in the letters is so contradictory that Acts is shown to be unreliable. By contrast, Hengel and Schwemer 1997, Suhl 1975, and Phillips 2009 contend that a critically appropriated Acts can inform a chronology of Paul’s life. Similarly, Jewett 1979 asserts that interpreters can use the parts of Acts that are based on reliable sources for this work. The difference in how interpreters use Acts usually determines whether they think Paul traveled to Greece before or after the Jerusalem Conference; the less interpreters use information from Acts, the more likely they are to find that Paul went to Greece before the conference. Buck and Taylor 1969 is distinctive for how early the authors date all of Paul’s letters. However, Hurd 1967 argues that the letters were written over such a long period of time that the changes apparent in them can help us reconstruct Paul’s life.

• Buck, Charles, and Greer Taylor. Saint Paul: A Study of the Development of His Thought. New York: Scribner’s, 1969.

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  Through changes that they perceive in Paul’s letters, these authors set out a chronology of Paul’s life and letter writing that has Paul composing all the undisputed letters except Philemon before the year 48.

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• Hengel, Martin, and Anna Maria Schwemer. Paul between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1997.

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  This book allows a critically appropriated Acts to inform its understanding of Paul and the development of the early church’s theology. It sees Paul as the one who provides the theological reasoning that justifies the already existent practice of admitting gentiles into the church.

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• Hurd, John C., Jr. “Pauline Chronology and Pauline Theology.” In Christian History and Interpretation: Studies Presented to John Knox. Edited by W. R. Farmer, C. F. D. Moule, and R. R. Niebuhr, 225–248. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1967.

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  Hurd argues that because Paul’s letters were written over a longer time span than many had thought, the developments found in the theology of the letters should be used to help reconstruct Paul’s life.

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• Jewett, Robert. A Chronology of Paul’s Life. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.

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  Jewett asserts that the more historically reliable parts of Acts may be used for reconstructing the chronology of Paul’s life; Acts must be treated as a secondary source in comparison with Paul’s letters, but some parts are unusable for constructing a chronology. Despite this shift in evaluating Acts, Jewett still places the Apostolic Conference after Paul’s initial trip to Greece.

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• Knox, John. Chapters in a Life of Paul. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1987.

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  Maintaining that Acts is not a reliable source for reconstructing the life of Paul, Knox builds his biography from evidence in only the letters. He argues that Paul visits Europe before the Jerusalem Conference. Originally published in 1950 (New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury).

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• Lüdemann, Gerd. Paul, Apostle to the Gentiles: Studies in Chronology. Translated by F. Stanley Jones. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984.

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  Originally published in German as Paulus, der Heidenapostel (Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1980). Following the view of Knox, Lüdemann contends that Acts cannot be used to construct a chronology of Paul’s life; thus, he reconstructs a life of Paul solely on the basis of the letters.

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• Phillips, Thomas E. Paul, His Letters, and Acts. Library of Pauline Studies. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2009.

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  Phillips interprets the data from the Pauline letters and Acts independently before making comparisons. He then tries to fit the data from the letters into the larger data set from Acts. He sees Acts as an attempt to rehabilitate Paul, who was never reconciled to the Jerusalem church during his lifetime.

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• Suhl, Alfred. Paulus und seine Briefe: Ein Beitrag zur paulinischen Chronologie. Studien zum Neuen Testament 11. Gütersloh, Germany: Gütersloh Verlagshaus Mohn, 1975.

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  Suhl acknowledges that Paul’s letters are the only primary source for a chronology, but he integrates the data from the letters into a framework derived from Acts.

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Collection for Jerusalem

Paul’s project of gathering a collection from his churches to deliver to the church in Jerusalem was a major element in the latter part of his ministry, being mentioned in most of his extant letters. Beyond its practical purpose of addressing the needs of the poor, many would also argue that Paul saw important theological and ecclesiological purposes in this project. Nickle 1966 and Georgi 1992 set Paul’s understanding of it in eschatological perspective, connecting it with the traditions surrounding gentiles’ eschatological pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Heinz 1982 emphasizes that it was also an attempt to maintain and strengthen the unity of the church. Joubert 2000 approaches the collection by studying it in the context of benefit exchange in the 1st century. Downs 2008 interprets it against the background of systems of benefaction, seeing Paul divert attention from himself so that God is looked on as the benefactor. Discussion of Paul’s intention and of the actual result of his delivering of this collection continues as part of attempts to understand both Paul’s theology and a moment of early church history.

• Downs, David J. The Offering of the Gentiles: Paul’s Collection for Jerusalem in Its Chronological, Cultural, and Cultic Contexts. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2.248. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2008.

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  Downs argues that Paul was involved in two collections: an early one and a later one, which is the collection that receives attention in so many letters. Downs examines the background of benefactions. Paul identifies the collection as a cultic offering to God; this makes the benefactor God rather than the immediate donors or Paul.

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• Georgi, Dieter. Remembering the Poor: The History of Paul’s Collection for Jerusalem. Nashville: Abingdon, 1992.

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  Originally published in German as Geschichte der Kollekte des Paulus für Jerusalem (Hamburg-Bergstedt, Germany: H. Reich, 1965), this translation adds a twenty-five-page afterword. Georgi argues that the collection is integral to Paul’s mission and theology. Seeing the poor of the Jerusalem Conference letter as an eschatological name for the Jerusalem church, Georgi finds that the collection acknowledges that identity and their suffering for the gentile members of the church.

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• Heinz, Josef. Koinonia: “Kirche” als Gemeinschaft bei Paulus. Biblische Untersuchungen 16. Regensburg, Germany: Pustet, 1982.

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  Heinz asserts that a central reason for the collection was to express thanks to the Jerusalem church and to give a sign that the predominantly gentile churches wanted to remain in partnership and fellowship with them.

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• Joubert, Stephan. Paul as Benefactor: Reciprocity, Strategy and Theological Reflection in Paul’s Collection. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2.124. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2000.

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  Joubert distinguishes between Greek benefaction and Roman patronage, finding more reciprocity in the benefaction system, which is the model Paul draws on for the collection; thus, the collection involved a benefit exchange rather than a one-way gift to Jerusalem. In this way, the different parts of the church are brought together more closely.

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• Nickle, Keith F. The Collection: A Study in Paul’s Strategy. Studies in Biblical Theology 48. Naperville, IL: Allenson, 1966.

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  This important book not only examines Paul’s strategy for accomplishing this task, but also investigates its meaning. Nickle sees it as an act of charity, an act designed to maintain unity, and an eschatological sign.

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The Teaching of Jesus

Since the beginning of the modern era, a debate has continued about the relationship between Paul’s theology and the way Jesus understood himself. Some have argued that Paul’s theology is perfectly congruent with Jesus’ own teaching and self-understanding. Others have contended that Paul perverted the simple faith of Jesus to produce a new religion that Jesus never intended. Although some continue to hold to these extremes, most interpreters have found some middle ground. Holzbrecher 2007 provides a detailed survey of the positions taken. Jüngel 2004 is an influential treatment of the question that finds some theological continuities between Jesus and Paul. Lüdemann 2002 continues the tradition of seeing Paul as the founder of Christianity, while Wright 1997 is an accessible rejection of that assertion. The recognition by most scholars that Jesus was an observant Jew has required an acknowledgment that the faith of the church was not fully present during Jesus’ lifetime. Most do not conclude, however, that there is no meaningful continuity between Jesus and Paul’s theology. Wenham 1995 examines the question from several different angles, concluding that Paul was a follower of Jesus. Furnish 1993 provides an accessible introduction to the discussion and focuses on Paul’s knowledge of the sayings of Jesus. Fredriksen 1999 gives a more extensive, but still accessible, treatment to some Pauline themes, considering whether Paul’s view seems historically plausible for Jesus’ lifetime. Still 2007 includes several examples of the ways interpreters see continuities between Jesus and Paul’s teaching and practice.

• Fredriksen, Paula. “Trajectories: Paul, the Gospels, and Jesus.” In Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity. By Paula Fredriksen, 74–154. New York: Knopf, 1999.

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  In this accessible book, Fredriksen identifies important themes (meaning of Christ, apocalyptic eschatology, and so on) from the undisputed letters of Paul and considers whether Paul’s view is traceable to, or plausible in, the setting of Jesus’ ministry. She finds significant connections and differences.

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• Furnish, Victor Paul. Jesus According to Paul. Understanding Jesus Today. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

  DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511621321Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Furnish provides a brief introduction to the issues involved in the debate about the relationship between Paul’s theology and the teachings of Jesus. Furnish gives significant attention to the sayings of Jesus that appear in Paul’s letters.

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• Holzbrecher, Frank. Paulus und der historische Jesus: Darstellung und Analyse der bisherigen Forschungsgeschichte. Texte und Arbeiten zum neutestamentlichen Zeitalter 48. Tübingen, Germany: Francke, 2007.

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  Holzbrecher provides a detailed history of the research on this issue, relating his analysis to phases of the way the question of the historical Jesus has been treated. Holzbrecher contends that the relationship between Paul and Jesus is more complicated than has often been recognized.

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• Jüngel, Eberhard. Paulus und Jesus: Eine Untersuchung zur Präzisierung der Frage nach dem Ursprung der Christologie. 7th ed. Hermeneutische Untersuchungen zur Theologie 2. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2004.

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  Originally published in 1962, this classic work sets out the preaching of Jesus and compares it with the theology of Paul, particularly his doctrine of justification through faith in Christ. Jüngel finds significant eschatological emphasis in the preaching of Jesus.

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• Lüdemann, Gerd. Paul, the Founder of Christianity. Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2002.

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  One of the early-21st-century works that argue that Christianity owes its existence to Paul, the person who transformed the teachings of Jesus into a different religion.

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• Still, Todd D., ed. Jesus and Paul Reconnected: Fresh Pathways into an Old Debate. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007.

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  This volume brings together scholars of significant standing who address this issue in connection with a number of others, including the Law, the place of Israel, concern for the poor, traditions related to the Lord’s Supper, and the meaning of the death of Jesus. These authors see significant continuity between Jesus (or broader church teaching about him) and Paul.

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• Wenham, David. Paul: Follower of Jesus or Founder of Christianity? Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1995.

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  Wenham compares the views of Paul and Jesus (as seen in the Gospels) on a range of topics, including titles of Jesus, the meaning of the death of Jesus, ecclesiology, and ethics. Wenham concludes that Paul had significant knowledge about Jesus and that he was Jesus’ follower, not the founder of Christianity.

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• Wright, N. T. What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1997.

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  A popular rejection of the idea that Paul was the founder of Christianity.

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Judaism

Throughout the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries, interpreters assumed that Paul’s theology was formed in large part as a rejection of a legalistic (or at least formalistic) Judaism. Davies 1980 (originally published in 1948), however, began to give new attention to elements of Paul’s theology that were consistent with rabbinic Judaism. Stendahl 1976 encourages a new understanding of Judaism through the author’s rejection of the image of the guilt-ridden Paul seeking relief from the Law. It was, however, Sanders 1977 that produced a shift in the ways Paul is understood in relation to Judaism. E. P. Sanders argues that Paul retained the same pattern of religion that is present in much 1st-century Judaism. This work spawned the movement known as the New Perspective, whose representatives include James Dunn (Dunn 2008; also see Dunn 1998, cited under Theology). Even those not identified with that movement understand both Judaism and Paul in ways that are different from the views commonly held before Sanders. Thielman 1989 and Westerholm 2004 represent reactions against the understandings of Paul that were developed in Sanders’s work and the New Perspective. Donaldson 1997 investigates the kind of change that took place in Paul’s thought about the Law when he joined the church, without seeing Judaism as legalistic; this new trajectory from Sanders has led to new discussions about the relationship between Judaism and Pauline churches. At the same time, discussions about the place of Israel within Paul’s theology were renewed. Gager 1983 and Gaston 1987 (both cited under Radical New Perspective) are among those works that argue that Paul thought his gospel was only for gentiles and that Jews were thus saved without faith in Christ. This topic remains the subject of significant debate.

• Davies, W. D. Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980.

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  Originally published in 1948 (London: SPCK), this book revived the study of the relationship between Paul and the beliefs, ideas, and practices of non-Christian Jews of his time and the centuries immediately following.

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• Donaldson, Terence L. Paul and the Gentiles: Remapping the Apostle’s Convictional World. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997.

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  Donaldson argues that Paul moves from having a Torah-centered theological outlook to seeing faith in Christ as the criterion for inclusion in the church; thus, while there is nothing wrong with Torah, belief in Christ requires a shift in how one views it.

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• Dunn, James D. G. The New Perspective on Paul. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008.

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  This collection of essays by Dunn traces his thought as a leading proponent of the New Perspective. To this edition, he adds a new essay asserting that some previous theological emphases rejected by some scholars in the New Perspective can be maintained.

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• Sanders, E. P. Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977.

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  This book changed the understanding of 1st-century Judaism that was prominent among Pauline scholars. Sanders argues powerfully that Judaism was not a legalistic religion, but, rather, it held to the view that he called covenantal nomism. He also argues that the view of Paul interpreters inherited from Luther was problematic. This book helped turned the study of Paul’s theology in new directions.

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• Stendahl, Krister. “The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West.” In Paul among Jews and Gentiles, and Other Essays. By Krister Stendahl, 78–96. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976.

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  Stendahl asserts that Paul was not burdened with guilt, as he was often portrayed in studies of Pauline theology. This response to the work of Rudolf Bultmann also maintains that Paul was not as inward looking and individualistic as he was often seen; Paul’s doctrine of justification had a cosmic aspect that was not focused on the transformation of the individual.

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• Thielman, Frank. From Plight to Solution: A Jewish Framework for Understanding Paul’s View of the Law in Galatians and Romans. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 61. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1989.

  DOI: 10.1163/9789004266919Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Thielman rejects Sanders’s understanding of Paul’s theology as a form of covanental nomism. Thielman particularly objects to Sanders’s notion that Paul’s understanding of salvation needed to create the problem it was solving rather than being a response to a deep human need.

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• Westerholm, Stephen. Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004.

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  Westerholm reviews the views of Paul seen in works by Augustine, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and John Wesley to introduce his argument that the image of the “Lutheran Paul” is a caricature. Westerholm’s treatment of an array of topics (including justification, works, the Fall, the Spirit, and election) leads him to find more value in the “Lutheran Paul” than he sees in many interpreters.

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Social Context

The 20th century saw significant attention given to setting Paul and his churches in their philosophical and cultural context. These studies were sparked, in part, by new archaeological discoveries and by the successful use of such data, in Deissmann 1978 (originally published in 1909; cited under Epistolary Studies), to illumine the context of New Testament writings. Initially, these studies were primarily works of social description, but some researchers began to analyze the data, using modern sociological or anthropological models and theories. The former type of study appears under this heading; the latter, under the heading Studies Applying Sociology and Anthropology. The accessible Judge 1960 demonstrates the way social description could contribute to New Testament studies, and Malherbe 1983 is an accessible introduction to this type of study. Meeks 2003 (originally published in 1983) remains a starting point for much discussion of the social and cultural setting of Pauline churches. Other studies focus on the intellectual culture of the period. Nock 1964 (which includes material from as early as 1928) sets Paul’s thought in the context of Hellenistic religious experience. The essays in Engberg-Pedersen 1994 focus attention on this Hellenistic context, trying to correct what the editor sees as neglect because of the dominant attention given to Paul’s Jewish context. Porter 2008 is a series of essays dealing with a wider range of issues that help set specific elements of Paul’s thought in their social context. Winter 1994 explores the way Paul’s churches related to this environment, arguing that they remained more engaged with that world than often thought. Elliott and Reasoner 2011 collects ancient parallels to themes in Paul to help interpreters explore this area of study, and Murphy-O’Connor 2008 is a similar collection of ancient documents but adds discussion of archaeological evidence, as the author focuses more narrowly on the single city of Ephesus.

• Elliott, Neil, and Mark Reasoner, eds. Documents and Images for the Study of Paul. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2011.

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  This collection of resources of contemporaneous materials helps readers set Paul in his intellectual and cultural background. These resources identify parallels for various Pauline themes and practices, as well as providing an introduction for those topics.

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• Engberg-Pedersen, Troels, ed. Paul in His Hellenistic Context. Studies of the New Testament and Its World. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994.

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  This collection of essays sets Paul’s thought in its Hellenistic context, emphasizing that readers must not remove Judaism of the 1st century from that broader context when they see Judaism as a setting for Paul’s thought.

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• Judge, E. A. The Social Pattern of the Christian Groups in the First Century: Some Prolegomena to the Study of New Testament Ideas of Social Obligation. London: Tyndale, 1960.

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  A work of social description, this book helped spur the study of the social context of Paul’s churches that flourished in the following decades.

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• Malherbe, Abraham J. Social Aspects of Early Christianity. 2d ed. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983.

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  This book is an accessible introduction to the work of social description of the early church, as it was being conducted by Malherbe, Wayne Meeks, and Judge (to name a few leaders). The text offers both the state of the field at that moment and some discussion of the contributions and limitations of the method.

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• Meeks, Wayne A. The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the Apostle Paul. 2d ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.

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  A foundational book (originally published in 1983) that provides a social description of the Pauline churches, rather than analyzing them through a particular sociological model. The text emphasizes the urban setting, with its structures, as the environment of the Pauline churches. It is among those works that argue that Pauline churches had a wide array of social classes among their members, even though most were poor.

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• Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. St. Paul’s Ephesus: Texts and Archaeology. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2008.

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  As he has done for Corinth, Murphy-O’Connor provides students with what ancient historians, novelists, and poets said about Ephesus, with an introduction to each author. He also reports on what we know of Ephesus from archaeological work.

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• Nock, Arthur Darby. Early Gentile Christianity and Its Hellenistic Background. Harper Torchbooks: The Cloister Library. New York: Harper & Row, 1964.

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  This influential book contains essays originally published in 1928 and 1952, which set Pauline thought and the Pauline churches in the context of Hellenistic religious experience, with particular attention to mystery religions.

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• Porter, Stanley E., ed. Paul’s World. Pauline Studies 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.

  DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004162723.i-284Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This collection of essays covers a wide range of topics, ranging from religious beliefs and cultic drunkenness, local languages, and crucifixion to Paul’s social class, educational level, and rhetorical skills.

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• Winter, Bruce W. Seek the Welfare of the City: Christians as Benefactors and Citizens. First-Century Christians in the Graeco-Roman World. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994.

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  Winter examines the early church’s view of relations with the broader culture. In conversation with those who see the church as radically countercultural, he argues that the early church drew on a wider range of social classes than is often envisioned and that it remained more engaged with civic life than is often thought.

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Theology

The study of Pauline theology has made some significant shifts since the middle of the 20th century, when Bultmann 1951 exercised significant influence. Ridderbos 1975 represents a more traditional construal of Pauline thought than Bultmann 1951 or what would develop in subsequent decades. Discussion of Paul’s theology often focused on identifying the center of his thought. Although a number of centers were proposed, justification by faith was perhaps the most common. Stendahl 1976 powerfully questions the validity of such individualistic construals of Paul. Beker 1980, which presents the thesis that interpreters do not have sufficient evidence to identify a center, has been influential in moving interpreters to emphasize the contingent nature of Paul’s theologizing in his letters. The Pauline Theology Group (whose work appears in Bassler 1991, Hay 1993, and Hay and Johnson 1995) formed to examine Paul’s theology with this contingency in mind. This has led many to question the extent to which Romans may serve as a guide to how Paul’s theology works. Dunn 1998, however, maintains that Romans may serve that purpose. Among individual themes of Paul’s theology that are receiving significant attention are the questions of the place of Israel and the importance of apocalyptic within Paul’s theology. Hübner 1993 calls for a more canonical approach to studying Paul, setting him in the context of a biblical theology, a direction many would question. Barclay 2015 sets Paul’s understanding of grace within expectations of 1st-century gift giving to hear it more clearly in relation to other discussions of grace within Judaism and the church. There has been an active conversation about Paul’s theology in relation to Judaism, particularly in connection with the New Perspective (see Judaism). Campbell 2006 argues that Paul sees a continuing place both for Jews and gentiles among believers in Christ and that this is a central element of his theological vision. Wright 2013 sets Paul’s theology in the context of God’s faithfulness to the covenant with Abraham. The author sees Paul working within a thoroughly Jewish matrix.

• Barclay, John M. G. Paul and the Gift. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2015.

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  Barclay sets Paul’s understanding of grace within the gift-giving conventions of the 1st century. He identifies six aspects of gift giving that various authors push to their extremes. This disaggregation allows interpreters to recognize that what often distinguishes different theologies, from ancient sources to the early 21st century, is not whether one believes in grace more than the other, but rather that some writers emphasize one aspect of grace and other authors focus on a different one.

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• Bassler, Jouette M., ed. Pauline Theology. Vol. 1, Thessalonians, Philippians, Galatians, Philemon. Society of Biblical Literature Symposium. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991.

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  The essays and responses in this and the three subsequent volumes follow the method set out by J. C. Beker; they are the products of a group of established Pauline scholars who gathered annually at the Society of Biblical Literature meeting (beginning in 1985), discussing the theology of each particular letter rather than constructing an overarching theology of Paul.

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• Beker, J. Christiaan. Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980.

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  Beker abandons the search for the center of Paul’s theology, asserting that Paul draws on various core beliefs when addressing particular issues in his letters; although there is a coherent center, the situation determines the element Paul uses. At the same time, Beker argues that apocalyptic is the matrix through which Paul always works.

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• Bultmann, Rudolf. “The Theology of Paul.” In Theology of the New Testament. Vol. 1. By Rudolf Bultmann, 185–352. Translated by Kendrick Grobel. New York: Scribner’s, 1951.

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  Bultmann’s volume, originally published in German as three volumes, Theologie des Neuen Testaments (Tübingen, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr, 1948–1953), was one of the most influential of the 20th century. He interpreted Paul through the lens of existentialism, seeking to understand the meaning of Paul’s theology for the modern world.

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• Campbell, William S. Paul and the Creation of Christian Identity. Library of New Testament Studies 322. New York: T&T Clark, 2006.

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  Campbell argues that Paul did not intend to create a church that eradicated the differences between Jews and gentiles. Rather, believers in Christ maintained their ethnic identities even as they were united in a relationship with God through Christ. The distinctiveness of Israel remains, and gentiles are seen as being brought into relationship with Israel so that God brings salvation to all. Paul maintains a continuity with Judaism by seeing the new covenant as a renewal and expansion of the covenant with Israel.

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• Dunn, James D. G. The Theology of Paul the Apostle. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998.

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  This volume explicates Paul’s theology from the viewpoint of the New Perspective, using Romans as its guide for an outline of that theology.

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• Hay, David M., ed. Pauline Theology. Vol. 2, 1 and 2 Corinthians. Society of Biblical Literature Symposium. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993.

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  Follows the format of the first volume in the series (Bassler 1991).

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• Hay, David M., and E. Elizabeth Johnson, eds. Pauline Theology. Vol. 3, Romans. Society of Biblical Literature Symposium. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995.

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  Follows the format of the previous two volumes in the series (Bassler 1991, Hay 1993). A fourth and final volume followed this book. That volume seeks conclusions and returns to questions of method.

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• Hübner, Hans. Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments. Vol. 2, Die Theologie des Paulus und ihre neutestamentliche Wirkungsgeschichte. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1993.

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  Hübner studies Pauline theology explicitly as a believer, thinking that only fellow believers can fully understand Paul. Hübner views the task of biblical theology as an investigation of the conversation between the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. He sees change and development in Paul’s theology (including between Galatians and Romans) but finds that some constants remain.

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• Ridderbos, Herman. Paul: An Outline of His Theology. Translated by John Richard de Witt. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1975.

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  Originally published in Dutch as Paulus, Ontwerp van zijn theologie (Kampen, The Netherlands: J. H. Kok, 1966). Ridderbos provides a thorough mid-20th-century reading of Paul’s theology. His understanding of Paul’s theology is an example of interpretations that preceded the work of E. P. Sanders and the New Perspective. Ridderbos also represents a scholarly and evangelical reading of Paul’s theology from that period.

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• Stendahl, Krister. “The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West.” In Paul among Jews and Gentiles, and Other Essays. By Krister Stendahl, 78–96. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976.

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  Stendahl rejects interpretations of Paul’s theology that he sees as too individualistic, finding them unduly influenced by the introspective works of Augustine and Martin Luther. This view makes it unlikely that usual understandings of justification by faith are the center of Paul’s theology.

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• Wright, N. T. Paul and the Faithfulness of God. 2 vols. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2013.

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  Wright sees Paul working to understand the place of Christ and the church within the monotheism and the election of Israel. He argues that Paul reads the Torah as a narrative that informs how he understands God acting in Christ. He sees the messiahship of Jesus and the presence of the Spirit in the church as Paul’s central theological affirmations. Those elements lead Paul to redefine radically his understandings of God, election, and eschatology.

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Ethics

At the beginning of the 20th century, few saw an intimate or necessary connection between Paul’s ethics and his theology. Paul’s exhortations and moral instructions were perceived as secondary matters appended to the truly important parts of the letters. His ethics were merely taken over and Christianized either from Judaism or other contemporary moralists. Furnish 2009 (originally published in 1968), however, argues that an integral and necessary connection exists between Paul’s theology and his ethics, even as it is important to set those instructions in the context of other moralists of the time. Meeks 1986 (cited under Topical Studies) furthers the study of Pauline ethics in relation to other moralists, Marxsen 1993 seeks what made Pauline and Christian ethics distinctive in that environment, and Sampley 1991 emphasizes the ways Paul’s eschatology sets his ethics apart from others. Meeks 1993 looks to the way community shapes the ethics of the Pauline and other early Christian churches. Although most early-21st-century Pauline interpreters avoid describing 1st-century Judaism as legalistic, the authors of Marxsen 1993 and Schulz 1987 retain that characterization. Schrage 1988 continues Victor Paul Furnish’s emphasis on relating Paul’s theology and ethics, while Keck 1996 raises more issues of methodology for Pauline ethics. The question of how believers may appropriate Paul’s moral instruction and thought has also become an increasingly important issue since the mid-20th century. Hays 1996 contributes to this conversation while also examining the ethics of various New Testament texts, and Horrell 2005 extends this discussion by relating Paul’s ethical discussion to contemporaneous ethical theories.

• Furnish, Victor Paul. Theology and Ethics in Paul. New Testament Library. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2009.

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  At the time of original publication in 1968 (Nashville: Abingdon), many Pauline interpreters saw little connection between Paul’s ethical instructions and his theology. Furnish asserts that Paul’s theological convictions shape his answers to specific circumstances and questions of conduct. Furnish argues for a necessary connection between the indicatives of Paul’s theology and the imperatives of his ethical instruction.

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• Hays, Richard B. The Moral Vision of the New Testament: Community, Cross, New Creation; A Contemporary Introduction to New Testament Ethics. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996.

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  Hays examines various New Testament texts, including the Pauline letters, in search of the moral vision that each has, finding differences and tensions among them. Following this examination, Hays reviews how contemporaries have appropriated Scripture in moral reasoning. Then he lays out his own method for how Christians should use the New Testament to make moral judgments.

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• Horrell, David G. Solidarity and Difference: A Contemporary Reading of Paul’s Ethics. London: T&T Clark, 2005.

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  Horrell brings the Pauline texts into conversation with modern ethical theories, particularly the opposing liberal and communitarian theories. He concludes that various parts of Paul’s discussions of ethics have resonances with each of these theories. This discovery, Horrell contends, opens doors for the creation of new models in the early-21st-century setting.

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• Keck, Leander E. “Rethinking ‘New Testament Ethics.’” Journal of Biblical Literature 115.1 (1996): 3–16.

  DOI: 10.2307/3266815Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Keck provides careful definitions and sets out some methodological issues to help interpreters think more clearly about the interpretation of Pauline moral and ethical instructions. Available for purchase online.

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• Marxsen, Willi. New Testament Foundations for Christian Ethics. Translated by O. C. Dean Jr. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993.

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  Originally published in German as “Christliche” und christliche Ethik im Neuen Testament (Gütersloh, Germany: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 1989), this text seeks to distinguish what is distinctively Christian in the ethical reasoning of the New Testament from what is simply taken in from the culture or nominally Christian. For Marxsen, only those things that are distinctively Christian should be used to make judgments about behavior today. The book contains comparisons between 1st-century Judaism and the early church that severely distort and denigrate Judaism.

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• Meeks, Wayne A. The Origins of Christian Morality: The First Two Centuries. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.

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  Meeks describes the morality of the early Christian communities, with particular attention to the Pauline churches. He argues that morality, here specifically Christian morality, is shaped by the community and by the examples to which they look.

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• Sampley, J. Paul. Walking between the Times: Paul’s Moral Reasoning. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991.

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  Sampley sees Pauline ethics as being significantly determined by Paul’s apocalyptic eschatology; living by the Spirit, which is an eschatological gift, enables Christians to begin to embody what the people of God are to be when the kingdom is fully present.

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• Schrage, Wolfgang. The Ethics of the New Testament. Translated by David E. Green. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988.

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  Originally published in German as Ethik des Neuen Testaments (Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1982). Schrage argues that all the central elements of Paul’s theology are intimately and necessarily related to Paul’s ethics; furthermore, those ethics inform his theology in essential ways.

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• Schulz, Siegfried. Neutestamentliche Ethik. Zürcher Grundrisse zur Bibel. Zurich, Switzerland: Theologischer Verlag, 1987.

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  Schulz asserts that Paul’s ethics undergo a change after the Jerusalem Conference. Before the conference, Paul’s ethic was more closely related to the morality of the Hebrew Bible. Schulz also contrasts Paul’s ethic with what he sees as a rather legalistic Jewish ethic.

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Topical Studies

In the wake of new understandings of Pauline ethics and discussion of Christian appropriation of Paul’s ethics, a number of topics have received important attention. Barclay 1988 represents an example of developing the connections between Paul’s theology and his ethics. This work also shows the way interpreters have begun to view the ethical instruction of a letter as a part of its overall argument. Keck 1996 specifically relates Paul’s ethics to his theology of judgment, working to clarify both. Meeks 1986 contributes to setting Paul’s ethics in their own cultural context, and Meeks 1996 then problematizes any simple transfer to Paul’s ethics to the present, with a study of the way the household codes in the Pauline letters were used in the debates about slavery in the United States. Scroggs 1984 discusses ways Christians can appropriate what they find in Paul.

• Barclay, John M. G. Obeying the Truth: A Study of Paul’s Ethics in Galatians. Studies of the New Testament and Its World. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1988.

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  Barclay insists that the ethical exhortations of Galatians are directly connected to the theological issues that make up the earlier sections of Galatians. Thus, he affirms a substantive place for ethics within Paul’s theological argumentation.

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• Keck, Leander. “The Accountable Self.” In Theology and Ethics in Paul and His Interpreters: Essays in Honor of Victor Paul Furnish. Edited by Eugene H. Lovering and Jerry L. Sumney, 1–13. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.

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  Keck argues that in Pauline thought, moral decisions are not made on the basis of what reason shows one ought to do; rather, decisions about proper behavior are determined by accountability and loyalty to God.

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• Meeks, Wayne A. The Moral World of the First Christians. Library of Early Christianity 6. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986.

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  This accessible volume describes the understandings of morality in the Hellenistic city and among philosophic schools, as well as that found within Judaism. These serve as the basis for understanding early Christian morality.

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• Meeks, Wayne A. “The ‘Haustafeln’ and American Slavery: A Hermeneutical Challenge.” In Theology and Ethics in Paul and His Interpreters: Essays in Honor of Victor Paul Furnish. Edited by Eugene H. Lovering and Jerry L. Sumney, 232–253. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.

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  After showing how the Haustafeln were used to support the practice of owning slaves, Meeks discusses the difficulty of using Pauline texts in Christian reasoning about morality.

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• Scroggs, Robin. “The New Testament and Ethics: How Do We Get from There to Here?” Perspectives in Religious Studies 11.1 (1984): 77–93.

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  This essay discusses how Christians can use the New Testament to guide current thought and practice. Scroggs reviews positions of Christian ethicists and New Testament scholars and then argues that a combination of a sense of realized eschatology (presence of the Kingdom) and a search for analogies between the ancient and modern situations is the best way to proceed.

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Development of Thought in Paul’s Letters

Given the differences in Paul’s instructions to various churches and the variations in his theological statements, some interpreters have claimed that Paul’s theology changed over the course of his writing. Hurd 1983 argues that the Jerusalem Conference significantly influenced Paul’s thought, as he conformed to the decisions made at the conference. Buck and Taylor 1969 looks instead to the delay of the parousia as the primary reason Paul’s theology changes. Räisänen 1986 points to Paul’s debates with his opponents as the reason for the tensions and contradictions Heikki Räisänen finds across Paul’s letters. Furnish 1970 asserts a position that remains the more common one in arguing against there being significant changes across Paul’s letters.

• Buck, Charles, and Greer Taylor. Saint Paul: A Study of the Development of His Thought. New York: Scribner’s, 1969.

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  Through changes that they perceive in Paul’s thought in various letters, these authors set out a chronology of Paul’s life and letter writing that has Paul composing all the undisputed letters except Philemon before the year 48. They argue that the death of believers before the parousia and Paul’s experience of persecution led to developments in Paul’s eschatology, Christology, and view of the Law.

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• Furnish, Victor Paul. “Development in Paul’s Thought.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 38.3 (1970): 289–303.

  DOI: 10.1093/jaarel/XXXVIII.3.289Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article sets out an argument against the position of Buck and Taylor 1969.

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• Hurd, John Coolidge. The Origin of I Corinthians. 2d ed. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1983.

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  Hurd argues that Paul becomes more conservative (including being more restrictive in matters of behavior and in his thought about the Spirit) in the wake of the Jerusalem Conference. A major purpose of 1 Corinthians, then, is to bring the Corinthian church into conformity with the Apostolic Decree. Originally published in 1965 (London: SPCK).

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• Räisänen, Heikki. Paul and the Law. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986.

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  Räisänen contends that Paul’s letters contain many inconsistencies and contradictions, particularly in what Paul says about the Law; Paul’s thought changes as he counters those who demand that gentiles become Torah observant. As Paul changes, he often fails to see the contradictions in his new and previous views—even in statements within a single letter.

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Rhetorical Analysis of Paul’s Letters

Although there were exceptions, such as Rudolf Bultmann’s study of diatribe (Bultmann 1910), few in the 20th century gave attention to a rhetorical analysis of Paul’s writings until the last quarter of the century. George Kennedy (Kennedy 1984) and Wilhelm Wuellner (Wuellner 1987) were among those who spurred on this type of study. Their methods, however, were rather different; Kennedy focused on using ancient rhetorical categories, whereas Wuellner argued that analysis using the “new rhetoric” of Chaïm Perelman and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca held the most promise in attempts to understand how Paul’s letters work. Both methods continue to be used. Rhetorical analysis was further advanced by a series of conferences held biannually, usually with the sponsorship of Pepperdine University, under the leadership of Thomas H. Olbricht (see Olbricht 1990). These conferences produced several volumes of collected essays that advanced the rhetorical study of Pauline materials, primarily but not solely from the perspective of ancient rhetoric (e.g., Porter and Olbricht 1993 and Olbricht and Sumney 2001). Mack 1990 provides an introduction to this type of interpretation, and Mitchell 1991 demonstrates that interpreters cannot rigidly apply rhetorical handbook models when analyzing texts.

• Bultmann, Rudolf. Der stil der paulinischen Predigt und die kynischstische Diatribe. Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1910.

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  Bultmann analyzes the style of Romans, comparing it with the Cynic rhetorical device of diatribe. He sees the question-answer format of much of Romans as drawing on this rhetorical form.

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• Kennedy, George A. New Testament Interpretation through Rhetorical Criticism. Studies in Religion. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.

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  This short volume helped revive the use of rhetorical criticism in New Testament studies. It lays out a method that draws on the categories of ancient rhetoricians and provides examples of its use.

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• Mack, Burton L. Rhetoric and the New Testament. Guides to Biblical Scholarship: New Testament. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990.

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  Mack argues that the New Testament texts are by nature rhetorical texts. He contends that interpreters should use classical rhetoric to understand them. Pauline texts in 1 and 2 Corinthians and Galatians are among his examples of the value of this approach.

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• Mitchell, Margaret M. Paul and the Rhetoric of Reconciliation: An Exegetical Investigation of the Language and Composition of 1 Corinthians. Hermeneutische Untersuchungen zur Theologie 28. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1991.

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  Mitchell’s use of rhetorical criticism recognizes the complexity of the method, eschewing a wooden application of handbook paradigms (as is done in many studies). She sees 1 Corinthians as an example of the use of deliberative rhetoric without imposing a strict pattern of how sections must function because of where they appear. This work shows the promise of careful use of rhetorical criticism.

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• Olbricht, Thomas H. “An Aristotelian Rhetorical Analysis of 1 Thessalonians.” In Greeks, Romans, and Christians: Essays in Honor of Abraham J. Malherbe. Edited by David L. Balch, Everett Ferguson, and Wayne A. Meeks, 216–236. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990.

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  Beginning with Aristotelian rhetorical categories, Olbricht (who has been important in encouraging the growth of rhetorical study of the New Testament) analyzes the exhortations in 1 Thessalonians and proposes the new genre of “church rhetoric.”

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• Olbricht, Thomas H., and Jerry L. Sumney, eds. Paul and Pathos. Society of Biblical Literature Symposium 16. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2001.

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  This volume contains essays drawn mostly from the 1999 conference in Lahti, Finland, on the use of pathos in biblical writings. The text includes essays on pathos in Greco-Roman rhetoric and in Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, and Galatians.

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• Porter, Stanley E., and Thomas H. Olbricht, eds. Rhetoric and the New Testament: Essays from the 1992 Heidelberg Conference. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement 90. Sheffield, UK: JSOT, 1993.

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  This collection of essays is drawn from those presented at the initial international conference, organized largely by Olbricht. The text contains essays on individual works and on methodology. Authors of the essays on method include Wuellner, Vernon K. Robbins, Bernard Lategan, and Klaus Berger.

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• Wuellner, Wilhelm. “Where Is Rhetorical Criticism Taking Us?” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 49.3 (1987): 448–463.

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  Wuellner is a leading figure in introducing New Testament studies to the “new rhetoric” of Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca. In this essay, he reviews the use of rhetorical criticism in New Testament studies and then asserts that rhetorical criticism will help New Testament scholars be more interdisciplinary and lead them to consider the ideological nature of biblical texts.

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Paul’s Uses of the Scriptures of Israel

The question of how Paul used the Scriptures of Israel has received significant attention since Richard Hays drew attention to the topic in 1989. Before that time it was usually presumed that Paul simply proof texted. Hays 1989 uses the author’s narrative theology to argue that Paul’s use of a passage is usually consistent with themes in the originating text. Wagner 2003 follows the lead of Hays, giving extensive attention to a single Pauline text and its use of a single prophetic text. Stanley 1992 is among those studies that continue to see more proof texting. This difference has led to discussions of literacy and knowledge of the Hebrew Bible (which Paul and his churches would have read in Greek) in the Pauline churches. Francis Watson takes a different tack than either Hays or Christopher Stanley (Watson 2004), seeing Paul as intentionally highlighting what seem to be tensions in the texts of the Hebrew Bible, as he interprets them through his understanding of Christ. Porter and Stanley 2008 provides a collection of essays that represent the state of the discussion and show the diversity of views on various topics. Hübner 1997 identifies contacts between Pauline texts and those of the Hebrew Bible. This tool can be used helpfully regardless of how one sees those texts being used by Paul.

• Hays, Richard B. Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989.

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  Hays argues that Paul’s quotations of, and allusions to, Scripture are not simply proof texting, but that Paul reads those texts from within an overarching narrative of God’s election and promise. Furthermore, Hays maintains that themes in the broader context of the originating text usually correspond in some way to the use Paul makes of the text; as a part of the overarching narrative, those quotations and allusions legitimate Paul’s message.

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• Hübner, Hans, ed. Vetus Testamentum in Novo. Vol. 2, Corpus Paulinum. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997.

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  This volume lists all the places in which the Pauline letters seem to have parallels with, or cite passages from, the Hebrew Bible.

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• Porter, Stanley E., and Christopher D. Stanley, eds. As It Is Written: Studying Paul’s Use of Scripture. Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series 50. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.

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  This collection of essays provides an overview of the state of the discussion on issues of methodology. Interpreters from different perspectives contribute on topics that examine Paul’s audience (their biblical literacy and place in relation to the Roman Empire), his use of the Scriptures, and how interpreters identify his references to them.

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• Stanley, Christopher D. Paul and the Language of Scripture: Citation Technique in the Pauline Epistles and Contemporary Literature. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph 74. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

  DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511896552Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Stanley is not convinced that Paul gives attention to the literary context or a larger narrative when making use of Scripture. Noting that Paul’s readers would often not be able to recognize his allusions, Stanley asserts that Paul’s use of Scripture is a type of proof texting.

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• Wagner, J. Ross. Heralds of the Good News: Isaiah and Paul in Concert in the Letter to the Romans. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 101. Boston: Brill, 2003.

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  With a method akin to that used by Hays, Wagner finds Paul’s theology and understanding of his mission to have significant resonances with the book of Isaiah. With a focus on Romans 9–11, Wagner sees Paul’s use of Scripture as faithful to the originating text and yet a revisionary reading.

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• Watson, Francis. Paul and the Hermeneutics of Faith. London: T&T Clark, 2004.

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  Watson argues that Paul radically rereads the Torah, highlighting its tensions (between God’s unconditional promises and the demands of the Law) to give it new meanings. For Watson, Paul always reads Scripture in relation to Christ; Paul’s reading is not, however, unidirectional. Paul both understands who Christ is through Scripture and understands Scripture anew through Christ.

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Epistolary Studies

Interest in the study of the form of Pauline epistles began in Germany in the early 20th century with Deissmann 1978 (originally published in 1908). It was not until the mid-20th century that this study received substantive attention in the English-speaking world. Adolf Deissmann compared the Pauline letters with other letters of the time and determined that Paul’s writings fit into the category of a formal epistle rather than that of informal letters. Although most researchers have now rejected that stark contrast, even while leaning more toward informal correspondence, Deissmann’s comparisons led to more-extensive comparisons. Koskenniemi 1956 remains a standard reference, with its examination of the phrasing used within letters and its use of ancient epistolary theorists. Doty 1973 provides an introduction to critical study of the form of the epistles, whereas Stirewalt 1993 introduces types of ancient letters and literary practices. Stowers 1986 also introduces types of letters but draws in the social setting of letter writing. Study of these epistolary forms is one further way of setting the Pauline writings into their cultural context. Thus, Malherbe 1988 and other works compare elements of Paul’s writings with letter-writing instruction from the Greco-Roman world as ways of identifying the tone and emphasis of particular letters. White 1986 is a useful collection of ancient letters that help interpreters identify parallels with Pauline writings.

• Deissmann, Adolf. Light from the Ancient East: The New Testament Illustrated by Recently Discovered Texts of the Graeco-Roman World. 4th ed. Translated by Lionel R. M. Strachan. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1978.

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  Originally published in 1908. Deissmann compares Paul’s letters with letters and other material from the Greco-Roman world. His form-critical analysis was among the first done on Pauline letters. He concluded that Paul’s letters were more like formal epistles generally meant for public reading than they were like personal or private letters.

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• Doty, William G. Letters in Primitive Christianity. Guides to Biblical Scholarship: New Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1973.

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  This book introduces readers to critical study of the form of ancient letters and to how Paul’s letters draw on the various formalized elements of those letters.

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• Koskenniemi, Heikki. Studien zur Idee und Phraseologie des griechischen Briefes bis 400 n. Chr. Suomalaien Tiedeakatemie Toimituksia. Helsinki: Suomalaien Tiedeakatemie, 1956.

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  Koskenniemi argues that ancient letters intend to convey a sort of presence of the author and thus to project a fictional conversation, with various parts of the letter serving different purposes within that conversation. He based his influential study both on ancient epistolary theorists and on actual ancient letters.

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• Malherbe, Abraham J., ed. and trans. Ancient Epistolary Theorists. Sources for Biblical Study 19. Atlanta: Scholars, 1988.

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  After a brief discussion of epistolary theory in the ancient world, Malherbe provides the text and translation for nine different ancient authors who discussed the nature of letters and the characteristics of various types of letters.

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• Stirewalt, M. Luther, Jr. Studies in Ancient Greek Epistolography. Resources for Biblical Study 27. Atlanta: Scholars, 1993.

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  The essays in this volume introduce readers to types of ancient letters, the practice of pseudonymity, and the chreia. These essays also reject the stark distinction between the formal epistles and informal letters that Deissmann asserted.

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• Stowers, Stanley K. Letter Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Library of Early Christianity 5. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986.

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  This book introduces readers to the social settings of ancient letter writing. The text also gives extended attention to recognizing the different types of letters of the Hellenistic period.

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• White, John L. Light from Ancient Letters. Foundations and Facets. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986.

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  This volume provides examples of various types of Hellenistic letters, which helps interpreters see how Paul’s letters compare with other letters and thus how they would be heard in their original settings.

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Subunits of Letters

Study of ancient letters also turned to inquiry about the form and function of subunits of ancient letters, including the Pauline letters. Schubert 1939 pioneered this study with its examination of Pauline thanksgivings. O’Brien 1977 furthered work on this epistolary unit. Critical study of form was then advanced significantly with the work of John L. White (White 1972a, White 1972b), who both investigated the functions of subunits and made comparisons with other literature. Kim 1972 adds an analysis of the specific genre of letters of recommendation. Funk 1967 and Mullins 1962 are among the important studies of recurring literary forms within Paul’s letters, and Jervis 1991 demonstrates that knowledge of the functions of such subunits can contribute to understanding a letter’s historical context.

• Funk, Robert W. “Apostolic Parousia: Form and Significance.” In Christian History and Interpretation: Studies Presented to John Knox. Edited by W. R. Farmer, C. F. D. Moule, and R. R. Niebuhr, 249–268. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1967.

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  Funk discusses the form and function of Paul’s references to his travel plans, concluding that they are ways to convey his authority both on the letter and the one who delivers it.

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• Jervis, L. Ann. The Purpose of Romans: A Comparative Letter Structure Investigation. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement 55. Sheffield, UK: JSOT, 1991.

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  Jervis maintains that the formal epistolary features of Romans give important clues for understanding the letter’s purpose. She determines that the primary purpose of Romans is to lead the Roman gentile Christians to acknowledge Paul as their apostle.

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• Kim, Chan-Hie. Form and Structure of the Familiar Greek Letter of Recommendation. Society for Biblical Literature Dissertation 4. Missoula, MT: Society for Biblical Literature, 1972.

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  Kim produces a form-critical analysis of more than eighty letters of recommendation, identifying common structures and elements. He also examines the differences within those elements.

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• Mullins, Terence Y. “Petition as a Literary Form.” Novum Testamentum 5.1 (1962): 46–54.

  DOI: 10.1163/156853662X00251Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A literary-critical study of various types of petitions, comparing the elements found in them with the petitions found in the Pauline letters and other New Testament writings.

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• O’Brien, Peter T. Introductory Thanksgivings in the Letters of Paul. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 49. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1977.

  DOI: 10.1163/9789004266605Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  O’Brien builds on the work of Paul Schubert, identifying different types of Pauline thanksgivings and discussing their form and function.

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• Schubert, Paul. Form and Function of the Pauline Thanksgivings. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche 20. Berlin: A. Töpelmann, 1939.

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  One of the earliest and most influential form-critical studies of the Pauline thanksgivings. Schubert argues that these thanksgivings foreshadow the major topics of the entire letter.

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• White, John Lee. The Form and Structure of the Official Petition: A Study in Greek Epistolography. Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation 5. Missoula, MT: Society of Biblical Literature, 1972a.

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  White conducts a form-critical analysis of more than seventy official petitions, identifying their structure and some common subunits.

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• White, John Lee. The Form and Function of the Body of the Greek Letter: A Study of the Letter-Body in the Non-literary Papyri and in Paul the Apostle. 2d ed. Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation 2. Missoula, MT: Scholars, 1972b.

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  This important study compares Paul’s letters with other letters of the period to discern the function of each part of a Hellenistic letter. White’s work helped show that Paul’s letters were more like nonliterary writings than like literary productions.

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The Pauline Tradition

Pauline scholars have assumed the existence of a Pauline school since the 19th century (e.g., Baur 2003, cited under General Overviews). There have been, however, different understandings of the school and its theology. Although most plot out the changes primarily in particular beliefs, MacDonald 1988 relates such changes to shifts in the social situation of the authors and the communities they address. Conzelmann 1979 locates the school in Ephesus and asserts that it was powerfully influenced by wisdom traditions, and Standhartinger 2004 continues to see wisdom traditions as a powerful influence. Some within the field have argued that Paul quickly became the apostle of heretics, to the extent that many within the mainstream of the church avoided him. Lindemann 1979, however, contends that his influence was constant throughout the ancient church from the time of his letter writing forward. A later study, Lindemann 1999, examines the various ways that different works from the Pauline school shaped his image; Pervo 2010 develops this same point in a form that is more accessible to nonspecialists. MacDonald 1988 shifts the study of the school to study its social setting as a way to understand why it develops the teachings and structure that appear in the Deutero-Pauline letters. The essays in Marguerat 2009 look outside the Pauline school but still examine the ways the image of Paul and understanding of his teaching were received after his death. Brown 1984 makes the discussion about the Pauline school available to a wide readership, emphasizing ecclesiology as a way to approach ecumenism, and Beker 1991 provides a broader, focused, accessible discussion of the topic, presenting the view that many hold about the domestication of Paul by the Pauline school.

• Beker, J. Christiaan. Heirs of Paul: Paul’s Legacy in the New Testament and in the Church Today. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991.

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  In this accessible volume, Beker examines the Deutero-Pauline letters to see whether they maintain Paul’s gospel and how they adapt it. He argues that each letter preserves something important about Paul’s thought but also domesticates significant elements of it. The final chapter deals with how to use Paul in the church in the 1990s.

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• Brown, Raymond E. The Churches the Apostles Left Behind. New York: Paulist, 1984.

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  In this accessible volume, Brown discusses the question of unity and diversity in the church in the last third of the 1st century. He traces the development of ecclesiology seen in Colossians, Ephesians, and the Pastorals.

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• Conzelmann, Hans. “Die Schule des Paulus.” In Theologia crucis—signum crucis: Festschrift für Erich Dinkler zum 70. Geburtstag. Edited by Carl Andresen and Günter Klein, 85–96. Tübingen, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr, 1979.

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  In this article, a touchstone for much discussion of the Pauline school, Conzelmann argues that the school was actually begun by Paul in Ephesus and that it was significantly influenced by the wisdom tradition.

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• Lindemann, Andreas. Paulus im ältesten Christentum: Das Bild des Apostels und die Rezeption der paulinischen Theologie in der frühchristlichen Literatur bis Marcion. Beiträge zur historischen 58. Tübingen, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr, 1979.

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  Lindemann argues against the view that in the earliest decades the “orthodox” avoided Paul because he was used so frequently by heretics; rather, the collection of his letters and the pseudepigrapha in his name show his continuing importance.

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• Lindemann, Andreas. Paulus, Apostel und Lehrer der Kirche: Studien zu Paulus und zum frühen Paulusverständnis. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1999.

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  Lindemann traces the way the Pauline school developed the image of Paul by looking at the different ways Paul is presented in the Deutero-Paulines and then by later writers, through the 2nd century. See especially pp. 183–322.

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• MacDonald, Margaret Y. The Pauline Churches: A Socio-historical Study of Institutionalization in the Pauline and Deutero-Pauline Writings. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph 60. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

  DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511470455Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  MacDonald uses social-scientific analysis to trace the development of aspects of community life in Pauline churches. She relates changes in beliefs to social situations, especially the change from community building (the genuine Paulines) through stabilization (Colossians and Ephesians) and finally to community-preserving structures and beliefs seen in the Pastorals. She finds more commonality between Paul and his successors than do many other scholars.

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• Marguerat, Daniel, ed. Reception of Paulinism in Acts / Réception du paulinisme dans les Actes des apôtres. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 229. Louvain, Belgium: Peeters, 2009.

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  This collection of essays treats major themes of Acts, looking at them in relation to Paul. Rather than asking whether Acts got Paul right, these essays examine the way Acts received and used Pauline traditions.

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• Pervo, Richard I. The Making of Paul: Constructions of the Apostle in Early Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2010.

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  Pervo argues that all our evidence about Paul, including the authentic letters (which ones collectors chose and how they edited them), was shaped to present particular understandings of Paul after his death. The Deutero-Paulines and later literature reshaped Paul as apostle in multiple ways, each conforming Paul to a particular view. Correspondingly, anti-Pauline sources construct different Pauls.

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• Standhartinger, Angela. “Colossians and the Pauline School.” New Testament Studies 50.4 (2004): 572–593.

  DOI: 10.1017/S0028688504000323Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  In this condensation of some material from her 1999 monograph Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte und Intention des Kolosserbriefs (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill), Standhartinger argues that the way Colossians uses wisdom traditions shows both a dependence on Paul and a development in his thought. Its Christology and eschatology also develop beyond Paul while remaining in conversation with him.

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