Ark of the Covenant

by

Raanan Eichler

• LAST REVIEWED: 21 November 2022
• LAST MODIFIED: 27 September 2017
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195393361-0245

Introduction

The ark of the covenant was, according to the Hebrew Bible (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Biblical Canon”), a portable wooden chest that occupied a central position in ancient Israelite worship. The various biblical passages pertaining to the ark indicate that it was thought by their authors to contain the documentation of a covenant (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Covenant”) between the Israelites and their Deity YHWH (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “God, Ancient Israel”), to mark that Deity’s presence, and to have been located in the holiest part of the wilderness tabernacle (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Temples and Sanctuaries”) and later of Solomon’s temple (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Temples and Sanctuaries”) in Jerusalem.

General Treatments

Due to its importance in the biblical literature and in later traditions, the ark has received many detailed treatments in encyclopedias and encyclopedic dictionaries, the most useful and recent of which are Zobel 1974, Seow 1992, Grintz and Freedman 2007, and George, et al. 2009. Eichler 2015 is a book-length study that focuses on the form and function of the ark but contains a long introductory chapter that deals with other aspects.

• Eichler, Raanan. “The Ark and the Cherubim.” PhD diss., Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2015.

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  Chapter 1 discusses the ark’s uniqueness, the biblical contexts in which it is mentioned, its status, its designations, and the word “ark” (aron) itself. Chapters 2–3 discuss its form, and chapter 4 its function. Chapters 6–10 discuss its lid (kapporet) and accompanying statues of cherubim.

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• George, Mark K., Günter Stemberger, Christopher Rowland, et al. “Ark of the Covenant.” In Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception. Vol. 1. Edited by Hans-Josef Klauck, et al., 744–767. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2009.

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  George discusses the ark’s names, form, history, parallels, and symbolism. The other authors provide a detailed account of the ark’s reception in Judaism, the New Testament, Christianity, Islam, literature, visual arts, and film. Available online by subscription.

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• Grintz, Yehoshua M., and Harry Freedman. “Ark of the Covenant.” In Encyclopaedia Judaica, 2d ed. Vol. 2. Edited by Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik, 466–469. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007.

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  Grintz briefly discusses the names, form, and history of the ark in the Bible. Freedman presents some ideas pertaining to the ark that are expressed in Talmudic Jewish literature. Available online by subscription.

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• Seow, C. L. “Ark of the Covenant.” In The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 1. Edited by David N. Freedman, 386–393. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

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  Detailed entry with sections on the ark’s designations, Near Eastern parallels, history, theology, and New Testament references.

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• Zobel, Hans-Jürgen. “’arôn.” In Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Vol. 1. Edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren. Translated by John T. Willis, 363–374. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1974.

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  Detailed entry with short sections discussing the etymology and meaning of the word “ark” (aron) itself and its secular occurrences in the Hebrew Bible, followed by a long section discussing its form, Near Eastern parallels, origin, religious significance, function, and history.

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Form

The ark is given a systematic formal description in passages in the book of Exodus (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Book of Exodus”) (25:10–21; 37:1–9; 40:20) that concern the tabernacle and are ascribed by scholars to the Priestly source. According to this description, the ark is a large, ornate, rectangular, acacia-wood chest with a carrying apparatus. Other biblical passages reveal in passing only that the ark is made of acacia wood (Deuteronomy 10:3) and that it has carrying poles (1 Kings 8:7–8; 2 Chronicles 5:8–9). General treatments of the ark’s form can be found in critical commentaries on Exodus, the most rigorous of which are Houtman 2000 and Propp 2006. Discussions of particular elements in the ark’s description can be found in Eichler 2014, Eichler 2015, and Eichler 2016.

• Eichler, Raanan. “The Meaning of zēr.” Vetus Testamentum 64.2 (2014): 196–210.

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  Argues that the titular feature of the ark, which is usually interpreted as a border or a molding, is more precisely understood as a cavetto cornice. Available online by subscription.

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• Eichler, Raanan. “The Meaning of pa‘am in the Context of Furniture.” Journal of Semitic Studies 60.1 (2015): 1–18.

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  Argues that the titular feature of the ark means “foot,” that the description in Exodus conveys that the ark had four feet, and that it does so only in passing because this was typical and expected of chests in the ancient Near East. Available online by subscription.

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• Eichler, Raanan. “The Poles of the Ark: On the Ins and Outs of a Textual Contradiction.” Journal of Biblical Literature 135.4 (2016): 733–741.

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  Argues that the ark’s carrying poles as described in Exodus are meant as four short poles on its underside that can be slid in and out, like those of an extant chest from the 14th-century BCE tomb of Tutankhamun. Available online by subscription.

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• Houtman, Cornelis. Exodus. Vol. 3. Translated by Sierd Woudstra. Historical Commentary on the Old Testament. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2000.

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  Pages 365–388 present imperfectly translated but insightful comments and extensive bibliography.

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• Propp, William H. C. Exodus 19–40: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Bible 2A. New York: Doubleday, 2006.

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  Pages 378–393 present superbly detailed notes and extensive bibliography. Longer comments in pages 515–521.

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Contents

Consistent with its name, aron, which essentially means “box” or “chest,” several biblical passages indicate that the ark contained something. The contents of the ark are said to have been given to Moses by the Deity (Exodus 25:16, 21; Deuteronomy 10:4) and to have been placed in the ark by Moses during the Israelite sojourn in the wilderness (Exodus 40:20; Deuteronomy 10:5; 1 Kings 8:9; 2 Chronicles 5:10). These contents are termed variously “two stone tablets” (Deuteronomy 10:3; 1 Kings 8:9; 2 Chronicles 5:10), berit yhwh, usually translated as “the covenant of YHWH” (1 Kings 8:21; 2 Chr 6:11), and the ‘edut, usually translated as “the testimony” (Exodus 25:16, 21; 40:20). Seow 1984, Knohl 1995, and Schwartz 1996 attempt to determine the precise meaning and nuances of these terms and their relationship with one another.

• Knohl, Israel. The Sanctuary of Silence: The Priestly Torah and the Holiness School. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1995.

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  In pages 142–146, Knohl argues that berit refers to a bilateral system of mutual obligations, whereas ‘edut refers to a unilateral system of commandments and orders; each term reflects a different view of the relationship between the Deity and Israel. The volume is a translation of a Hebrew edition from 1992.

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• Schwartz, Baruch J. “The Priestly Account of the Theophany and Lawgiving at Sinai.” In Texts, Temples and Traditions: A Tribute to Menahem Haran. Edited by Michael V. Fox, et al., 103–133. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1996.

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  Derives the word ‘edut from a root carrying the meaning “to testify.” Notes that the priestly author never states what the ‘edut is, and argues that it is not simply a synonym for berit.

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• Seow, C. L. “The Designation of the Ark in Priestly Theology.” Hebrew Annual Review 8 (1984): 185–198.

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  Argues that berit refers to the covenant between the Deity and Israel whereas ‘edut refers to the physical objects that concretize that covenant; the latter term is favored by the priestly author for theological reasons.

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Function and Parallels

Numerous biblical passages indicate that the ark functioned as a marker of the divine presence. Wilson 2005 and Coats 1985 emphasize that the books in which this conception is expressed include Deuteronomy (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Deuteronomy”) and Joshua (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Joshua”) respectively. Schmitt 1972 contains a survey of scholarship concerning this aspect of the ark. Indeed, attempts to determine the nature of the connection between the divine presence and the ark and to identify ancient Near Eastern parallels to such a connection constitute one of the most fertile areas of ark scholarship. Studies in this area may be divided into to two groups: those that see the divine presence as being above the ark, and those that see it as being inside the ark.

• Coats, George W. “The Ark of the Covenant in Joshua: A Probe into the History of a Tradition.” Hebrew Annual Review 9 (1985): 137–157.

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  Analyzes the role of the ark in the conquest traditions in the book of Joshua, arguing that it functions as the symbol of God’s presence and is primary to these traditions.

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• Schmitt, Rainer. Zelt und Lade als Thema alttestamentlicher Wissenschaft: Eine kritische forschungsgeschichtliche Darstellung. Gütersloh, Germany: Mohr, 1972.

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  A meticulous work on the history of scholarly research pertaining to the ark. In pages 98–138, Schmitt surveys theories about the nature of the connection between the Deity and the ark and about possible contents of the historical ark other than what is stated in the Hebrew Bible.

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• Wilson, Ian. “Merely a Container? The Ark in Deuteronomy.” In Temples and Worship in Biblical Israel. Edited by John Day, 212–249. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series 422. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2005.

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  Argues that the ark is portrayed in Deuteronomy as the focal point of the divine presence and not only as a container for the tablets.

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Kapporet

In its priestly description in Exodus, the ark is said to be surmounted by an object called the kapporet. According to the priestly “Atonement Day” pericope (Leviticus 16), the kapporet plays a central role in the rituals for purifying the temple. Different views on the meaning of the word kapporet are expressed by Görg 1977 and Laato 2004. Milgrom 1991 discusses the rituals with which the kapporet is associated.

• Görg, Manfred. “Eine neue Deutung für kăpporæt.” Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 89.1 (1977): 115–118.

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  Proposes that the word kapporet does not derive from Hebrew at all but is a contraction from Egyptian kp (n) rdwy, which means “soles of the feet.” Argues that the object is a footrest for the Deity and that its name refers to this function. Available online by subscription. The paper is supplemented by a very short note: Manfred Görg, “Nachtrag zu kapporet,” Biblische Notizen 5 (1978): 12.

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• Laato, Antti. “kappōret: ‘The Mercy Seat’ or the Lid of the Ark?” In Verbum et Calamus: Semitic and Related Studies in Honour of the Sixtieth Birthday of Professor Tapani Harviainen. Edited by Hannu Juusola, Juha Laulainen, and Heikki Palva, 137–143. Helsinki: Finnish Oriental Society, 2004.

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  Examines the semantics of the word kapporet itself. Argues that, although the object it names is described as a lid, the word does not mean “lid” but refers to the atonement (kippur) rituals with which the object is associated in Leviticus 16. Available online

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• Milgrom, Jacob. Leviticus 1–16: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Bible 3. New York: Doubleday, 1991.

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  Pages 1009–1084 of this outstanding commentary address Leviticus 16 and its atonement rituals, the central element of which is the sprinkling of atoning blood on the kapporet. Page 1014 comments on the word kapporet itself, while pages 1028–1033 address the object’s role in the rituals.

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Cherubim

In the priestly description of the tabernacle in Exodus and in the descriptions of the temple in Kings (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “1 and 2 Kings”) and Chronicles (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “1 and 2 Chronicles”), the ark is said to be overshadowed by two statues of cherubim. In the tabernacle, these cherubim emerge from the kapporet, while in the temple they are freestanding and very large. The purpose of the ark’s cherubim is debated. Foote 1904, Wood 2008, and Eichler 2011 see them as protecting what is below them with their wings, while Schmidt 1923 and Keel 1977 regard them as forming a throne for a Deity sitting above them. Torczyner 1930 and Kaufmann 1960 view them as symbolizing the heavenly chariot of the Deity.

• Eichler, Raanan. “The Function of the Ark Cherubim.” Tarbiz 79.2 (2011): 165–185.

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  In Hebrew. Rejects the view of the ark cherubim as forming a throne for the Deity; argues that the ark cherubim in the tabernacle and the temple serve to symbolically protect the divine presence with their outspread wings and are instances of a common ancient Levantine-Egyptian iconographic motif, the flanking winged guardians. Available online by subscription. The paper is a revision of a Hebrew thesis from 2007.

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• Foote, T. C. “The Cherubim and the Ark.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 25 (1904): 279–286.

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  Argues that the function of the cherubim over the ark, both in the tabernacle and in the temple, is to cover the ark with their outspread wings. Available online by subscription.

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• Kaufmann, Yehezkel. The Religion of Israel: From Its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile. Translated and abridged by Moshe Greenberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960.

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  In pages 236–240 of his magnum opus, Kaufmann argues that the cherubim were thought to represent the heavenly chariot, thereby symbolizing the presence of the Deity, and to guard the tablets in the ark. This volume is a translation and abridgment of Yehezkel Kaufmann, Toledot ha-Emunah ha-Yisraelit. 4 vols. Jerusalem: Bialik; Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1959–1960 (1937–1956). Hebrew.

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• Keel, Othmar. Jahwe-Visionen und Siegelkunst: Eine neue Deutung der Majestätsschilderungen in Jes 6, Ez 1 und 10 und Sach 4. Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1977.

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  Pages 15–45 discuss the ark cherubim. Provides iconographic support for the view of the ark cherubim as forming the throne of the Deity, comparing this throne to ancient Levantine thrones flanked by winged sphinxes.

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• Schmidt, Hans. “Kerubenthron und Lade.” In Eucharisterion: Studien zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments. Edited by idem, 120–144. Gottingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1923.

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  The first well-developed presentation of the idea that the ark cherubim were conceived as forming the throne of the Deity.

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• Torczyner, Harry. Die Bundeslade und die Anfänge der Religion Israels. Berlin: Philo, 1930.

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  Interprets the ark cherubim as an imitation and symbol of the heavenly chariot that served as a place for the temporary revelation of the Deity and as a general symbol for the divine presence. Asserts that they are paralleled by certain Arabian tent-shrines. Earlier edition from 1922 available online.

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• Wood, Alice. Of Wings and Wheels: A Synthetic Study of the Biblical Cherubim. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 385. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2008.

  DOI: 10.1515/9783110211214Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Comprehensive study of cherubim in the Hebrew Bible, with a detailed and compelling discussion of the ark cherubim. Argues, following Houtman, that the ark cherubim in the tabernacle and the temple serve as guardians, and rejects the view of the ark cherubim as forming a throne for the Deity.

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History

The biblical references to the ark create a picture of an object with a colorful history until the time of King Solomon (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Solomon”) (10th century BCE), after which it is mentioned only twice (Jeremiah 3:16; 2 Chronicles 35:3). Attempts to determine the actual history of the ark involve the evaluation of the historical reliability of the various texts and the teasing out of possible implicit information. According to Porzig 2009, almost none of the texts in which the ark is mentioned convey reliable historical information. Toorn and Houtman 1994 attempt to reconstruct the history of the ark during the reigns of Saul and David (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “David”). Hillers 1968 and Day 2007 debate whether the ark was carried out in ritual processions. Haran 1963 and Day 2005 discuss the ark’s final fate.

• Day, John. “Whatever Happened to the Ark of the Covenant?” In Temple and Worship in Biblical Israel: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar. Edited by John Day, 250–270. London: T&T Clark, 2005.

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  Surveys twelve premodern, modern scholarly, and modern non-scholarly answers to the titular question, concluding that the ark was likely destroyed along with Solomon’s temple in 586 BCE.

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• Day, John. “The Ark and the Cherubim in the Psalms.” In Psalms and Prayers: Papers Read at the Joint Meeting of the Society of Old Testament Study and Het Oudtestamentische Werkgezelschap in Nederland en België, Apeldoorn August 2006. Edited by Bob Becking and Eric Peels, 65–78. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.

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  Argues that there are a number of allusions to the ark in the book of Psalms (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Psalms”), and that they indicate the existence of a procession ritual for the ark in pre-exilic Jerusalem.

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• Haran, Menahem. “The Disappearance of the Ark.” Israel Exploration Journal 13.1 (1963): 46–58.

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  Argues that the ark was permanently removed from Solomon’s temple by King Manasseh (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Manasseh, King of Judah”) (7th century BCE). Available online by subscription. Published earlier in Hebrew in Bulletin of the Israel Exploration Society 25 (1961): 211–233. Appears later as chapter 15 (pp. 276–288) in Menahem Haran, Temples and Temple-Service in Ancient Israel: An Inquiry into the Character of Cult Phenomena and the Historical Setting of the Priestly School (Oxford: Clarendon, 1978; repr. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1985).

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• Hillers, Delbert R. “Ritual Procession of the Ark and Psalm 132.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 30 (1968): 48–55.

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  Argues that the single explicit reference to the ark in the book of Psalms does not indicate the existence of a procession ritual for the ark. Available online by subscription.

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• Porzig, Peter. Die Lade Jahwes im Alten Testament und in den Texten vom Toten Meer. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 397. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2009.

  DOI: 10.1515/9783110212938Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A scholarly monograph on the ark in German. Individually and meticulously analyzes every passage in the Hebrew Bible and Judean Desert scrolls (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Qumran/Dead Sea Scrolls”) in which the ark is mentioned. Argues that these passages are mostly very late, reflecting post-exilic theology, and that a historical ark never stood in Solomon’s temple.

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• Toorn, Karel van der, and Cees Houtman. “David and the Ark.” Journal of Biblical Literature 113 (1994): 209–231.

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  Argues for the existence of a suppressed, old tradition in which the ark was used for divination, was the symbol of Saulide state religion, and was kept at Saul’s sanctuary at Nob.

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Ark Narrative

Perhaps the most discussed biblical chapters concerning the ark are 1 Samuel 4–6 and 2 Samuel 6, which describe the peregrinations of the ark beginning in Shiloh and ending in Jerusalem. Rost 1982, the foundational study in this area, termed these chapters “the Ark Narrative.” After an article by Delcor 1964 on this topic, a book-length study by Schicklberger 1973 was followed closely by Campbell 1975, Miller and Roberts 1977, Campbell 1979, and Ahlström 1984. Eynikel 2000 and Bodner 2006 provide summaries of the debates.

• Ahlström, Gösta W. “The Travels of the Ark: A Religio-Political Composition.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 43.2 (1984): 141–149.

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  Describes the (“so called”) Ark Narrative as “an artful piece of propaganda of religio-political importance.” Argues that it may be a product of a pan-Israelite doctrine which viewed the people of Israel-Judah as a unit prior to the emergence of the monarchy, and that its purpose is to show the emergence of the Israelite Deity as an “empire god.” Available online by subscription.

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• Bodner, Keith. “Ark-Eology: Shifting Emphases in ‘Ark Narrative’ Scholarship.” Currents in Biblical Research 4 (2006): 169–197.

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  Summarizes recent research on the Ark Narrative by twelve different scholars. Available online by subscription.

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• Campbell, Antony F. The Ark Narrative, 1 Sam 4–6, 2 Sam 6: A Form-Critical and Traditio-Historical Study. Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series 16. Cambridge, MA: Society of Biblical Literature, 1975.

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  Accepts Rost’s definition of the Ark Narrative as consisting of the titular chapters. Adopting the methods of form criticism and rhetorical criticism, Campbell argues that the narrative is a theological work whose purpose is to demonstrate “the power, freedom, and independence of Yahweh.”

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• Campbell, Antony F. “Yahweh and the Ark: A Case Study in Narrative.” Journal of Biblical Literature 98 (1979): 31–43.

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  Traces the areas of agreement and disagreement among three recent treatments of the Ark Narrative by Schicklberger, the author, and Miller and Roberts.

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• Delcor, M. “Jahweh et Dagon: ou le Jahwisme face àla religion des Philistins, d’après 1 Sam. V.” Vetus Testamentum 14.2 (1964): 136–154.

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  Interprets the ark as the counterpart of a cult image. Argues that the ancient Near Eastern practices of capturing the cult image of the enemy and of returning it are paralleled by the Philistines’ (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Philistines”) capture and return of the ark in the Ark Narrative. Available online by subscription.

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• Eynikel, Erik. “The Relation between the Eli Narratives (1 Sam. 1–4) and the Ark Narrative (1 Sam. 1–6; 2 Sam. 6:1–19).” In Past, Present, Future: The Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets. Edited by Johannes C. de Moor and Harry F. van Rooy, 88–106. Oudtestamentische Studiën 44. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.

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  Reviews the arguments for and against the existence of an independent Ark Narrative. Determines that the Ark Narrative has its own plot but that the placement of 1 Samuel 1–3 before it introduced a new plot emphasizing the theme of sin and punishment.

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• Miller, Patrick D., and J. J. M. Roberts. The Hand of the Lord: A Reassessment of the “Ark Narrative” of I Samuel. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977.

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  Redefines the boundaries of the Ark Narrative, excluding 2 Samuel 6 but including parts of 1 Samuel 2. Argues that the Ark Narrative is very old, preceding David’s subjugation of the Philistines, and that its purpose is to demonstrate the Israelite Deity’s superiority and to explain Israel’s temporary loss of the ark.

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• Rost, Leonhard. The Succession to the Throne of David. Translated by Michael D. Rutter and David M. Gunn. Sheffield. UK: Almond, 1982.

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  In chapter 1, “The Ark Narrative,” Rost argues that 1 Samuel 4–6 and 2 Samuel 6 form a narrative that is independent, uniform, self-contained, and complete, and that it was authored during the reign of David or Solomon. Translation of Die Überlieferung von der Thronnachfolge Davids (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1926).

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• Schicklberger, Franz. Die Ladeerzählungen des ersten Samuel-Buches, Eine literaturwissenschaftliche und theologiegeschichtliche Untersuchung. Forschung zur Bibel 7. Würzburg, Germany: Echter, 1973.

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  Defines the Ark Narrative as 1 Samuel 4–6. Argues that it was authored around the turn of the 7th century by northern Israelite refugees and that its purpose was to stress that the divine presence is tied to the ark rather than Jerusalem.

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Chronicles

Forty-eight of the 195 explicit biblical references to the ark are found in the book of Chronicles (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “1 and 2 Chronicles”). This book consists largely of material paralleled in the books of Samuel and Kings but shaped by the author’s particular ideology. Van den Eynde 2001 and Begg 2003 look at the references to the ark in the book as a whole, while Eskenazi 1995 focuses on 1 Chronicles 13–16. Rezetko 2007 and Porzig 2014 suggest ways in which Chronicles may have influenced conceptions of the ark expressed elsewhere in the Bible.

• Begg, Christopher T. “The Ark in Chronicles.” In The Chronicler as Theologian: Essays in Honor of Ralph W. Klein. Edited by M. Patrick Graham, Steven L. McKenzie, and Gary N. Knoppers, 133–145. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series 371. London: T&T Clark, 2003.

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  Challenges the scholarly view that the Chronicler did not hope for a restoration or recovery of the lost ark.

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• Eskenazi, Tamara C. “A Literary Approach to Chronicles’ Ark Narrative in 1 Chronicles 13–16.” In Fortunate the Eyes That See: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of His Seventieth Birthday. Edited by Astrid B. Beck, et al., 258–274. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1995.

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  Presents a literary analysis of the titular pericope with brief remarks on its relation to the parallel text in the book of Samuel. Discusses the implications of the pericope for understanding the book of Chronicles, arguing that the prominence of the lost ark in the book does not imply an expectation that it will be restored.

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• Eynde, Sabine van den. “Chronicler’s Use of the Collocation ארון ברית יהוה.” Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 113.3 (2001): 422–430.

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  Argues that the Chronicler’s penchant for the designation “ark of the covenant of YHWH” is an intentional choice meant to sustain his views of kingship, and especially the kingship of David. Available online by subscription.

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• Porzig, Peter. “Postchronistic Traces in the Narratives about the Ark?” In Rereading the relecture? The Question of Postchronistic Influence in the Latest Redactions of the Books of Samuel. Edited by Uwe Becker and Hannes Bezzel, 93–105. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2/66. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2014.

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  Hypothesizes that all references to the Levites (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Levi/Levites”) as bearers of the ark in the books of Deuteronomy, Samuel, and Kings postdate and are influenced by the book of Chronicles.

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• Rezetko, Robert. Source and Revision in the Narratives of David’s Transfer of the Ark: Text, Language, and Story in 2 Samuel 6 and 1 Chronicles 13, 15–16. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 470. London: T&T Clark, 2007.

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  Evaluates the relationship between the story of David’s transfer of the ark to Jerusalem in 2 Samuel 6 and its parallel in 1 Chronicles 13–16, arguing that in many aspects the account in Chronicles reflects an earlier version of the story.

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Post-biblical Sources

Fascination with the ark is evident from postbiblical antiquity until the present day. For a general treatment of the ark in postbiblical sources, see George, et al. 2009 cited under General Treatments. Porzig 2009 is a comprehensive study of the ark in non-biblical Qumran (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Qumran/Dead Sea Scrolls”) literature. Begg 1998 and Begg 2005 are two articles in a series that provides a window into the portrayal of the ark by Josephus (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Flavius Josephus”). Many of the Talmudic (Oxford Bibliographies article in Biblical Studies “Talmud”) ideas concerning the ark are found in Kirschner 1992, while Milikowsky 2015 is an in-depth study of the various ancient Jewish traditions concerning a particular aspect of the ark. Revel-Neher 1984 takes the discussion into late antiquity and beyond.

• Begg, Christopher T. “The Return of the Ark according to Josephus.” Bulletin for Biblical Research 8 (1998): 15–37.

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  Investigates Josephus’s retelling of the account of the ark’s return from Philistia in 1 Samuel 6. This paper follows others by Begg on the two previous sections of 1 Samuel 4–6 as told by Josephus. “The Ark in Philistia According to Josephus: Ant 6,1–6,” Ephemerides theologicae Lovanienses, 72.4 (1996): 384–397. “The Loss of the Ark According to Josephus,” Liber annuus Studii biblici franciscani 46 (1996): 167–186. Available online

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• Begg, Christopher T. “Solomon’s Installation of the Ark in the Temple according to Josephus.” Revista catalana de teología 30 (2005): 251–265.

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  Investigates Josephus’s retelling of the account of the ark’s introduction into the temple in 1 Kings 8:1–11 and 2 Chronicles 5:2–14. Available online. This paper follows another by Begg on 2 Samuel 6 and 1 Chronicles 13–16 as told by Josephus: “David’s Transfer of the Ark according to Josephus,” Bulletin for Biblical Research 7 (1997): 11–36, available online.

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• Kirschner, Robert. Baraita de-Melekhet ha-Mishkan: A Critical Edition with Introduction and Translation. Monographs of the Hebrew Union College 15. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College, 1992.

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  Chapters 6–7 of this Talmudic work are devoted to the ark. The volume provides critical text, translation, and notes.

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• Milikowsky, Chaim. “Where is the Lost Ark of the Covenant? The True History (of the Ancient Traditions).” In Tradition, Transmission, and Transformation from Second Temple Literature through Judaism and Christianity in Late Antiquity. Edited by Menachem Kister, et al., 208–229. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 113. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2015.

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  Presents the divergent traditions in the Jewish literature of the Hellenistic-Roman period pertaining to the “lost ark” and looks at their origins and lines of development.

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• Porzig, Peter. “The Ark of the Covenant in the Non-Biblical Texts from Qumran.” In The Dynamics of Language and Exegesis at Qumran. Edited by Devorah Dimant and Reinhard G. Kratz, 203–218. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2/35. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2009.

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  Detailed treatment of the references to the ark in the non-biblical texts from the Judean Desert, with a long discussion of its mention in the Damascus Document. A newer, German-language version of the article appears as a chapter in Porzig’s book Die Lade Jahwes im Alten Testament und in den Texten vom Toten Meer (see under History), pages 256–277.

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• Revel-Neher, Elisabeth. L’arche d’alliance dans l’art juif et chrétien du second au dixième siècles. Paris: Association des amis des etudes archéologiques byzanto-slaves et du christianisme oriental, 1984.

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  Investigates the portrayal of the ark in pictorial sources from the 2nd to 10th centuries CE.

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