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Introduction

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (b. 1646–d. 1716) was one of the greatest of the early modern “rationalist” philosophers. He is perhaps best known to students of philosophy as an advocate of the principle of sufficient reason, the preestablished harmony of mind and body, philosophical optimism, and the doctrine of monads. While many if not all of these ideas have fallen out of favor, it is nevertheless the case that Leibniz’s arguments are deep and important and worth taking very seriously. Leibniz was an eclectic philosopher; he sought to draw out views that he thought were close to the truth and combine them in new ways to arrive at the most plausible picture of the world. It is for this reason that, while he is sympathetic to parts of the “modern” philosophy of René Descartes (b. 1596–d. 1650), Thomas Hobbes (b. 1588–d. 1679), and Benedict (Baruch) de Spinoza (b. 1633–d. 1677), he offers criticisms of it at the same time through the language and ideas of ancient and medieval philosophy. He was not just a philosopher, however, but was also a mathematician, natural philosopher, engineer, historian, lawyer, and diplomat of the first rank. As this bibliography is intended principally for students of philosophy, his other work will largely be ignored, as well as scholarship on it.

Introductory Overviews

The following works should be considered as “first wave” readings—that is, as books and essays that students should consult first in their study of Leibniz’s thought. There is no reason for a student to read all of these works, but students should begin with at least one of the following. Jolley 2005 is the most recent and also the best of these introductions in English. If one can read French, then Fichant 2004 contains a remarkably clear and insightful introduction. The older introductions, Rescher 1967, Broad 1975, and Belaval 2005, are also good. Deleuze 2006 is more broad ranging.

Belaval, Yvon. Leibniz: Initiation à sa philosophie. Paris: Vrin, 2005.
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An excellent introduction to Leibniz’s thought, this book emphasizes the genesis of his philosophy. One long first part (“la formation”) lays out Leibniz’s biography and philosophical development; the second, shorter part treats “le système.” Originally published in 1962.
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Broad, Charlie Dunbar. Leibniz: An Introduction. Edited by C. Lewy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1975.
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Broad’s book is a very clear introduction that covers the range of Leibniz’s metaphysical views.
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Deleuze, Gilles. The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque. Rev. ed. Translated by Tom Conley. London: Continuum, 2006.
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A look at Leibniz’s philosophy and his times. Contains fascinating and insightful observations that one is unlikely to encounter in much of the rest of Leibnizian scholarship. English translation of Le pli: Leibniz et le Baroque (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1988).
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Fichant, Michel. “L’invention métaphysique.” In Discours de métaphysique Monadologie et autres textes. Edited by Michel Fichant, 1–123. Paris: Gallimard, 2004.
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Fichant’s introduction to some of Leibniz’s central philosophical writings constitutes a small monograph in itself: it lays out the fundamental issues of Leibniz’s metaphysics in a remarkably clear and insightful manner. For students who read French, this is an excellent supplement to the introduction found in Jolley 2005.
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Jolley, Nicholas. Leibniz. London: Routledge, 2005.
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For students new to Leibniz’s thought, this is the first book to consult. Jolley covers the essentials of Leibniz’s philosophy in clear and straightforward prose and presents a compelling interpretation.
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Rescher, Nicholas. The Philosophy of Leibniz. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1967.
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Rescher’s book is dated, but it can still be helpful to beginning students.
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Primary Literature

Leibniz never produced a magnum opus like Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy, Spinoza’s Ethics, or Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding. While he did publish one philosophical book in his lifetime, the Essays on Theodicy, and drafted another, the New Essays on Human Understanding, his philosophical writing mainly took the form of shorter journal articles, essays, notes, and letters to other philosophers and scholars. The scope and quantity of this work is breathtaking. His extant writings run to approximately two hundred thousand manuscript pages in Latin, French, and German, including letters with over one thousand correspondents.

Original-Language Scholarly Editions

The definitive edition of Leibniz’s work (Leibniz 1923–)—a product of first the Prussian, then the Berlin-Brandenburg and Göttingen Academies of Sciences—is not scheduled to be completed until 2050, after almost 150 years of (interrupted) work. Leibniz’s philosophical essays and sketches, for example, have been published only through 1690, his philosophical correspondence through 1700. There are a number of other primary sources that the student should know, most importantly, the 19th-century editions of Gerhardt, republished as Leibniz 2008 and Leibniz 1971, and also Leibniz 1990 and Leibniz 1959. Leibniz 1948 and Leibniz 1988 also contain many very important shorter writings that a serious student should know.

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe. Edited by Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (later the Berlin-Brandenburg and Göttingen Academies of Sciences). Darmstadt and Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1923–.
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The “Akademie edition” is the scholarly source of Leibniz’s writings. Students of philosophy will be most interested in “Series (Reihe)” II—Philosophical Correspondence—and Series VI—Philosophical Writings—which includes his work up to 1690 (Vols. 1–4) plus the New Essays on Human Understanding (Vol. 6). Volume 5, containing philosophical work from 1690 to 1704, is in preparation.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Textes inédits: D’après les manuscrits de la Bibliothèque provinciale de Hanovre. 2 vols. Edited by Gaston Grua. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1948.
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This collection from the middle of the 20th century is broader in scope than Leibniz 1988 and contains many valuable texts not available in Leibniz 2008 and Leibniz 1971 or Leibniz 1923–.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Opera philosophica quae exstant Latina, Gallica, Germanica omnia. Edited by Johann Eduard Erdmann. Aalen, Germany: Scientia, 1959.
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This edition is a “handy” one-volume collection of Leibniz’s writings. Originally published in 1840.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Leibnizens Mathematische Schriften. Edited by Carl Immanuel Gerhardt. 7 vols. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms, 1971.
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Volume 6 of the Mathematische Schriften contains important work on dynamics and, more generally, natural philosophy that is often of significance for work in metaphysics. Originally published in 1859.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Opuscules et fragments inédits de Leibniz. Edited by Louis Couturat. Hildesheim, West Germany: Olms, 1988.
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Couturat’s edition contains many important texts on Leibniz’s logic and metaphysics—some of which have now been published in Leibniz 1923–, but many have not. Originally published in 1903.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Opera Omnia. 6 vols. Edited by Louis Dutens. Hildesheim, West Germany: Olms, 1990.
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The first attempt to collect all of Leibniz’s writings. Originally published in 1768.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Die philosophischen Schriften. 7 vols. Edited by Carl Immanuel Gerhardt. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms, 2008.
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Gerhardt’s 19th-century edition contains a number of mistakes and other flaws, but it is nevertheless the second-best source available for Leibniz’s works—and, in the case of his later philosophical work, sometimes the only source. Originally published in 1875.
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English Translations

There are many editions of Leibniz’s works in English. Leibniz 1969 is the most complete single volume general collection of Leibniz’s writings, but it is now somewhat expensive. Leibniz 1989 is the de facto standard in English-language studies of Leibniz. Leibniz 1995 is an inexpensive yet incredibly helpful short selection of texts. Leibniz 1985 and Leibniz 1996 are English-language editions of Leibniz’s two philosophical books. The works of the Yale Leibniz Series, for example, Leibniz 1992, Leibniz 2001, and Leibniz 2007, present original language texts and English translations on facing pages.

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Philosophical Papers and Letters: A Selection. 2d ed. Edited and translated by Leroy E. Loemker. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1969.
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Contains a large selection of Leibniz’s texts.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Theodicy: Essays on the Goodness of God, the Freedom of Man, and the Origin of Evil. Edited by Austin Farrer and translated by E. M. Huggard. La Salle, IL: Open Court, 1985.
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English translation of the only philosophical book that Leibniz published in his lifetime. The issue is the problem of evil, but the book contains much of Leibniz’s philosophy—if in a popular and rambling style. Translated from C. I. Gerhardt’s edition of the collected philosophical works, 1875–1890.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Philosophical Essays. Edited and translated by Roger Ariew and Daniel Garber. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1989.
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Good coverage of the breadth of Leibniz’s writings.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. De Summa Rerum: Metaphysical Papers, 1675–1676. Edited by G. H. R. Parkinson. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
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A collection of fascinating works from Leibniz’s Paris period.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Philosophical Writings. Edited by G. H. R. Parkinson. Translated by Mary Morris and G. H. R. Parkinson. London: Everyman, 1995.
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Contains a number of very valuable texts, not in Leibniz 1969 and Leibniz 1989, on logic and metaphysics.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. New Essays on Human Understanding. Rev. ed. Edited by Peter Remnant and Jonathan Bennett. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139166874 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
English-language version of Leibniz’s “dialogue” with Locke. A very important book that was not published until 1765.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. The Labyrinth of the Continuum: Writings on the Continuum Problem, 1672–1686. Edited and translated by Richard T. W. Arthur. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.
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Contains Leibniz’s most important writings on issues straddling mathematics and metaphysics.
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. The Leibniz-Des Bosses Correspondence. Edited and translated by Brandon C. Look and Donald Rutherford. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.
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An edition of a very important correspondence. The Latin text is a substantial improvement on the text from Leibniz 2008 and Leibniz 1971 (both cited under Original-Language Scholarly Editions).
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Essential Scholarly Aids

The following works should be in any good research library and are very helpful for the serious student of Leibniz. Bodemann 1966a and Bodemann 1966b are catalogs of Leibniz’s writings; Ravier 1966 lists the publications of Leibniz’s works. Heinekamp and Müller 1984 catalogs work on Leibniz. Müller and Krönert 1969 details Leibniz’s activity.

Bodemann, Eduard. Der Briefwechsel des Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in der Königlichen Öffentlichen Bibliothek zu Hannover. Hildesheim, West Germany: Olms, 1966a.
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A catalog of Leibniz’s correspondences. Originally published in 1895.
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Bodemann, Eduard. Die Leibniz-Handschriften der Königlichen Öffentlichen Bibliothek zu Hannover. Hildesheim, West Germany: Olms, 1966b.
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A catalog of Leibniz’s manuscripts. Originally published in 1899.
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Heinekamp, Albert, and Kurt Müller. Leibniz-Bibliographie: Die Literatur über Leibniz bis 1980. Frankfurt: Klostermann, 1984. Rev. ed.
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The title says it all. A very helpful reference work both topically and historically.
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Müller, Kurt, and Gisela Krönert. Leben und Werk von G.W. Leibniz: Eine Chronik. Frankfurt: Klostermann, 1969.
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A detailed chronology of where Leibniz was and what he was writing.
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Ravier, Emile. Bibliographie des oeuvres de Leibniz. Hildesheim, West Germany: Olms, 1966.
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This work contains a detailed chronology of the publication of Leibniz’s works, from those published by Leibniz in his lifetime to works published in the 19th century. Indispensable for understanding the history of the reception of Leibniz’s philosophy. Originally published in 1937.
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Biographies

The history of philosophy should not be studied as if philosophical positions were the timeless products of disembodied minds. Philosophy is a human activity, and philosophical works are the products of real men and women, who lived in particular times and places and whose concerns may or may not have been similar to our own. In short, it is important to understand a philosopher’s life if one is to really understand his or her work. Antognazza 2009 is outstanding, though Aiton 1985 can still be read with profit.

Aiton, E. J. Leibniz: A Biography. Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger, 1985.
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Aiton’s work has been surpassed by that of Antognazza 2009 as a general biography. Nevertheless, as Aiton was by training a mathematician and historian of mathematics, this biography contains more coverage of this aspect of Leibniz’s career than some of the other sources do.
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Antognazza, Maria Rosa. Leibniz: An Intellectual Biography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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Already the standard account. It details the political and cultural background of Leibniz’s life and sets his work in its European and, specifically, German historical context.
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Companions and Handbooks

Jolley 1995 and Look 2011 are intended as multiauthor introductions for advanced undergraduates and beginning graduate students.

Jolley, Nicholas, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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Collects essays from the leading Leibniz scholars of the 1990s and provides excellent coverage of the range of Leibniz’s thought.
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Look, Brandon C., ed. The Continuum Companion to Leibniz. London: Continuum, 2011.
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The same model as Jolley 1995 but with a newer generation of Leibniz scholars. The essays in this collection address some of the developments and controversies in scholarship in the intervening sixteen years.
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Journals

There are two journals devoted especially to the study of Leibniz’s philosophy: Studia Leibnitiana and the Leibniz Review. The former is the journal of the Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Gesellschaft (the International Leibniz Society) and is published twice a year; the former is the journal of the Leibniz Society of North America and is published annually. In addition, other journals devoted to the history of philosophy regularly publish articles on Leibniz’s philosophy: Journal of the History of Philosophy, Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy, Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie, and British Journal for the History of Philosophy.

Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie. 1888–.
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Publishes peer-refereed articles in English, French, and German.
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British Journal for the History of Philosophy. 1993–.
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Another excellent journal dedicated to the history of philosophy. Often contains essays on Leibniz.
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Journal of the History of Philosophy. 1963–.
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Along with the Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie, the most highly regarded journal devoted to the history of philosophy. Regularly publishes articles on Leibniz and other figures in the modern period.
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Leibniz Review. 1991–.
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Publishes refereed essays, usually requested by the editor. Has become a very high-quality journal.
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Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy. 2004–.
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An excellent, though relatively new, series. One volume per year.
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Studia Leibnitiana. 1969–.
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An international journal that publishes peer-reviewed articles in English, French, and German on Leibniz and his philosophy.
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Philosophical and Historical Background

In order to understand the background to Leibniz’s philosophy, it is not enough to understand the thought of the main 17th-century philosophers with whom Leibniz seems most directly engaged—for example, Descartes, Spinoza, Hobbes, Nicolas Malebranche (b. 1638–d. 1715), Antoine Arnauld (b. 1612–d. 1694), and John Locke (b. 1632–d. 1704). One must also understand the unique history of 17th-century German philosophy and, in particular, the academic philosophy of German universities. Wundt 1992 is the best study of the complex world of 17th-century academic philosophy in Germany, whereas Loemker 1972 offers an account of the many nonacademic and idiosyncratic thinkers of the century.

Loemker, Leroy E. Struggle for Synthesis: The Seventeenth Century Background of Leibniz’s Synthesis of Order and Freedom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972.
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A rich and philosophically deep study that places Leibniz’s philosophy in the context of other relatively unknown synthesizers and systematists: for example, Jacapo (Giacomo) Zabarella (b. 1533–d. 1589), Johann Heinrich Bisterfeld (b. 1605–d. 1655), Tomasso (Giovanni Domenico) Campanella (b. 1568–d. 1639), Giordano (Filippo) Bruno (b. 1548–d. 1600), Johann Heinrich Alsted (b. 1588–d. 1638), and Petrus Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée) (b. 1515–d. 1572).
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Wundt, Max. Die deutsche Schulmetaphysik des 17. Jahrhunderts. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms, 1992.
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An excellent account of 17th-century German philosophy—though readers should beware of the Wundt’s strong political and cultural biases. Originally published in 1939.
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Classic Studies

At the turn of the 20th century, Cassirer 1962, Couturat 1985 and Russell 1937, originally released within a few years of each other, each revived interest in Leibniz’s philosophy and offered fascinating interpretations of his thought that are still worth taking very seriously. Couturat 1985 and Russell 1937 emphasized Leibniz’s logical thought—which certainly had as much to do with their own interests as with Leibniz’s—and this emphasis strongly influenced Leibniz studies for much of the 20th century. Cassirer 1962 offers a historically more nuanced and complete systematic presentation of Leibniz’s thought—though the author’s interpretation also reflects his own neo-Kantianism and a very different notion of the role and nature of logic in Leibniz’s system. At some point, every student of Leibniz’s thought should read Russell 1937 at the very least. Mahnke 1964 is slightly different in its tone, thesis, and coverage, but it is nevertheless very valuable—in part, because it is not explicitly taking part in the debate that Couturat, Russell, and Cassirer initiated.

Cassirer, Ernst. Leibniz’ System in seinen wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms, 1962.
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A high-level introduction to Leibniz’s thought. Originally published in 1902.
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Couturat, Louis. La logique de Leibniz d’après des documents inédits. Hildesheim, West Germany: Olms, 1985.
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A deep and penetrating account of Leibniz’s logic and its relation to his metaphysics. Originally published in 1901.
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Mahnke, Dietrich. Leibnizens Synthese von Universalmathematik und Individualmethaphysik. Stuttgart–Bad Cannstatt, West Germany: Fromann, 1964.
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As the title suggests, Mahnke shows how Leibniz unites two seemingly opposite tendencies in his thinking: a universal mathematics on the one hand and a philosophy of the individual subject on the other. Originally published in 1925.
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Russell, Bertrand. A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz. 2d ed. London: Allen & Unwin, 1937.
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Argues that Leibniz’s philosophy can best be seen as following from a few logico-metaphysical axioms. A very important work in Anglo-American Leibniz studies. Originally published 1900.
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Recent General Studies

The following books are some of the best works of scholarship on Leibniz that have appeared in the last twenty years. They should be read by graduate students working on Leibniz or early modern philosophy in a “second wave”—after they feel oriented through (some of) the introductory works listed in Classic Studies. All the books in this section are concerned with issues of the development of Leibniz’s metaphysics or tensions within it. Robinet 1986 and Wilson 1989 argue that Leibniz advances different theses that remain in tension through his career. Adams 1994 and Rutherford 1995 see Leibnizian “idealism” as being a consistent doctrine from the 1680s onwards—though their understanding of “idealism” differs. Cover and O’Leary-Hawthorne 1999 are more concerned with issues relating to Leibniz’s so-called complete concept theory of substance, essentialism, and the like. Mercer 2001 details Leibniz’s early career. Garber 2009 argues that Leibniz endorsed a kind of Aristotelianism into the 1680s and 1690s.

Adams, Robert Merrihew. Leibniz: Determinist, Theist, Idealist. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
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Offers influential and important interpretations in the three areas of the subtitle: Leibniz’s philosophical theology, his theories of modality and freedom, and his metaphysics. Of perhaps most relevance to subsequent debates is Adams’s account of Leibniz’s idealism. Adams’s account, however, has a strong phenomenalistic strand in it, according to which bodies are (simply) phenomena or “intentional objects.”
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Cover, J. A., and John O’Leary-Hawthorne. Substance and Individuation in Leibniz. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511487149 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
A rich, philosophically minded study of some central puzzles in Leibniz’s metaphysics, in particular Leibniz’s ontology and metaphysics of modality. Students interested in the nitty-gritty of metaphysics—essentialism, haecceities, sufficient reason—will find much to think about in this volume.
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Garber, Daniel. Leibniz: Body, Substance, Monad. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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An excellent account of the development of Leibniz’s metaphysics. Garber argues that in his “middle years” (the 1680s into the 1690s), Leibniz held the fundamental constituents of his ontology to be quasi-Aristotelian “corporeal substances”—composites of matter and form—and that only later did Leibniz come to see mind-like simple substances (“monads”) as fundamental.
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Mercer, Christia. Leibniz’s Metaphysics: Its Origins and Development. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511498268 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
A detailed history of Leibniz’s early philosophical development. Mercer’s book probably has the best account in English of the philosophical and intellectual background of Leibniz’s early career. Mercer argues that many, if not most, of Leibniz’s central metaphysical commitments were in place by the time he was in his mid-twenties.
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Robinet, André. Architectonique disjonctive, automates systémiques et idéalité transcendantale dans l’œuvre de G.W. Leibniz. Paris: Vrin, 1986.
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Robinet argues that Leibniz’s metaphysics comprises two competing theses about the nature of individual substance. A dense and difficult book.
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Rutherford, Donald. Leibniz and the Rational Order of Nature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139172776 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
An important book, arguing that Leibniz’s system should be seen less as following several logical theses à la Couturat and Russell and more as following from reflections on the nature of God. Rutherford presents a compelling picture of Leibniz’s idealism that is at odds (in its details) with the idealistic interpretation of Adams.
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Wilson, Catherine. Leibniz’s Metaphysics: A Historical and Comparative Study. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.
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Rather than making a strong case for a philosophical development in Leibniz’s metaphysics, Wilson argues that (roughly) throughout his career, Leibniz is committed to several metaphysical theses that are ultimately inconsistent. In this respect, Wilson’s thesis is similar to that of Robinet 1986.
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Specialized Studies

The following more specialized studies should be seen as “third wave” reading—after students have oriented themselves through the introductory (“first wave”) and advanced (“second wave”) readings mentioned discussed in Recent General Studies. The works in the following subsections are appropriate for students considering different dissertation topics.

The “Young Leibniz”

Kabitz 1974 is an overarching treatment of Leibniz’s early philosophy, whereas Beeley 1996 focuses on Leibniz’s interests in natural philosophy, and Busche 1997 focuses more on Leibniz’s epistemology and philosophy of mind. Mercer 2001 is an expansive treatment of Leibniz’s early career.

Beeley, Philip. Kontinuität und Mechanismus: Zur Philosophie des jungen Leibniz in ihrem ideengeschichtlichen Kontext. Studia Leibnitiana Supplementa 30. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1996.
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An excellent study of the early years with a focus on Leibniz’s investigations in natural philosophy.
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Busche, Hubertus. Leibniz’ Weg ins perspektivische Universum: Eine Harmonie im Zeitalter der Berechnung. Hamburg, Germany: Meiner, 1997.
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A detailed examination of Leibniz’s early philosophical career. Rather than seeing Leibniz’s philosophy as one of “idealism,” Busche concentrates on Leibniz’s subjectivism or perspectivalism and shows how Leibniz arrived at this characteristic view.
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Kabitz, Willy. Die Philosophie des jungen Leibniz: Untersuchungen zur Entwicklungsgeschichte seines Systems. Hildesheim, West Germany: Olms, 1974.
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The first study dedicated to Leibniz’s philosophical development from his university years to his Paris sojourn. Originally published in 1909.
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Mercer, Christia. Leibniz’s Metaphysics: Its Origins and Development. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511498268 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The best treatment in English of Leibniz’s early philosophy. See Recent General Studies.
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Leibniz’s Correspondences

Much of Leibniz’s most important philosophical writing takes place in his correspondences with various philosophers and scholars. Indeed, one often sees Leibniz at his best in these exchanges as he carefully considers different views or revises or clarifies his own positions. The following works demonstrate the value of studying these writings. Lodge 2004 can be used as a general introduction to the philosophical issues in many of Leibniz’s correspondence. Sleigh 1990 deals with the very important exchange with Arnauld, Vailati 1997 with the Leibniz-Clarke correspondence. The introduction of Leibniz 2007 contains a long discussion of the philosophical issues in the correspondence with Des Bosses.

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. The Leibniz-Des Bosses Correspondence. Edited and translated by Brandon C. Look and Donald Rutherford. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.
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This critical edition of the Leibniz-Des Bosses correspondence contains a long introduction explaining the fundamental issues of the exchange. Although not as philosophically wide ranging as the correspondence with Arnauld, Leibniz’s correspondence with Des Bosses contains some of his most important (and sometimes most confusing) claims about the monadological metaphysics.
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Lodge, Paul, ed. Leibniz and His Correspondents. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511498237 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
A collection of essays on Leibniz’s various correspondences and the philosophical issues arising from them.
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Sleigh, Robert C., Jr. Leibniz and Arnauld: A Commentary on Their Correspondence. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.
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A rich and philosophically deep reading of the central issues of Leibniz’s correspondence with Arnauld, and therefore a deep reading of the central issues of all most of Leibniz’s metaphysics. For this reason, this book deserves to have been listed with the recent general studies.
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Vailati, Ezio. Leibniz and Clarke: A Study of Their Correspondence. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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A very helpful analysis of the Leibniz-Clarke correspondence. While Vailati’s main interest is naturally on space-time theories, he also considers natural religion in great detail.
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Leibniz’s Relations with Other Philosophers

Leibniz’s philosophy is often a reaction to the views of other philosophers. These books focus on understanding Leibniz in terms of his relation to others. Belaval 1960 concerns Leibniz’s relation with Descartes; Stein 1890, Friedmann 1975, and Laerke 2008 discuss Leibniz’s fascinating relation to Spinoza; Robinet 1955 analyzes the (understudied) issue of Leibniz’s relation to Malebranche; and Jolley 1984 concerns Leibniz’s relation to Locke.

Belaval, Yvon. Leibniz critique de Descartes. Paris: Gallimard, 1960.
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An excellent account of Leibniz’s relationship to Descartes, with an emphasis on Leibniz’s metaphysics and natural philosophy.
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Friedmann, Georges. Leibniz et Spinoza. Paris: Gallimard, 1975.
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Takes up the issue of Leibniz’s relation to Spinoza, though the book is not as interesting as Stein’s account.
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Jolley, Nicholas. Leibniz and Locke: A Study of the New Essays on Human Understanding. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984.
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The best book available on the New Essays and, by extension, on the relation between Leibnizian rationalism and Locke’s empiricism.
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Laerke, Mogens. Leibniz lecteur de Spinoza: La genèse d’une opposition complexe. Paris: Champion, 2008.
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Friedmann 1975 and Stein 1890 were for a long time the best sources for understanding Leibniz’s philosophical relationship to Spinoza and are still worth studying. Nevertheless, they have been surpassed by Laerke’s magisterial study, which leaves no stone unturned, no path unexplored.
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Robinet, André, ed. Malebranche et Leibniz: Relations personelles. Paris: Vrin, 1955.
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Leibniz’s relation with Malebranche has not been as widely studied as it deserves to be. This is the only book that deals with the subject, and it is quite good.
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Stein, Ludwig. Leibniz und Spinoza: Ein Beitrag zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der leibnizischen Philosophie. Berlin: Reimer, 1890.
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The first extended treatment of the role of Spinoza’s thought in Leibniz’s philosophical development.
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Metaphysics

The majority of work on Leibniz has been concerned with various topics in metaphysics; this work parallels the resurgence in interest in metaphysics in Anglo-American philosophy.

The Nature of Substance

Many of the works below are narrower in focus than the studies of Adams 1994, Rutherford 1995, Garber 2009, and Wilson 1989 (all cited under Recent General Studies). All make interesting contributions to our understanding of Leibniz’s ontological commitments. Phemister 2005, Hartz 2007, and Rutherford 2008 all take part in the debate about the nature of Leibniz’s “idealism.” Levey 1998 and Di Bella 2005 are motivated by different concerns and focus on different issues in Leibniz’s metaphysics.

Di Bella, Stefano. The Science of the Individual: Leibniz’s Ontology of Individual Substance. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2005.
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A philosophically and historically rich account of Leibniz’s account of individual substance. Di Bella argues against a common belief (made popular by Russell, for example) that Leibniz’s view of individual substance is the result of his reflections on the nature of subject-predicate logic.
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Hartz, Glenn. Leibniz’s Final System: Monads, Matter and Animals. London and New York: Routledge, 2007.
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Like Phemister, the author argues that even in Leibniz’s later years, he was committed to a form of “realism” (as opposed to “idealism”)—that is, that Leibniz was committed to the existence of corporeal substances and animals as fundamental in his system.
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Levey, Samuel. “Leibniz on Mathematics and the Actually Infinite Division of Matter.” Philosophical Review 107.1 (1998): 49–96.
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An excellent essay that shows the connection between Leibniz’s mathematical thought and his metaphysics. Levey argues that Leibniz looked to mathematics to clarify his views on the metaphysics of matter but that as a result of doing so was forced to rethink some central mathematical ideas. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Phemister, Pauline. Leibniz and the Natural World: Activity, Passivity and Corporeal Substances in Leibniz’s Philosophy. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2005.
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Phemister makes the case that the case for Leibnizian idealism has been exaggerated. Rather, she argues that Leibniz’s mature metaphysics is one in which bodies are in a weighty sense “real” and not just “ideal.”
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Rutherford, Donald. “Leibniz as Idealist.” In Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy. Vol. 4. Edited by Daniel Gardner and Steven M. Nader, 141–190. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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A subtle and nuanced account of Leibniz’s mature metaphysics. In many ways, this chapter serves as a supplement to the author’s 1995 book and provides a detailed response to the thought of Adams, among others.
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Levels of Reality

Connected with the issue of the nature of Leibnizian substance is the question of the different levels or “reality” in Leibniz’s metaphysics. In other words, while simple substances are generally represented as being most basic or most real, other things derive their reality from these simple substances. Hartz and Cover 1988 gives an excellent three-tiered picture of the levels of reality in Leibniz’s system, while Hoffman 1996 offers an important interpretation of the way in which corporeal phenomena are derivative of monads.

Hartz, Glenn A., and J. Cover. “Space and Time in the Leibnizian Metaphysic.” Noûs 22.4 (1988): 493–519.
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An influential article that distinguishes the monadic, phenomenal, and ideal levels in Leibniz’s metaphysics. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Hoffman, Paul. “The Being of Leibnizian Phenomena.” Studia Leibnitiana 28.1 (1996): 108–118.
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Argues (primarily against Adams) that bodies are not to be understood merely as intentional objects; rather, Hoffman claims that while the unity of corporeal phenomena are in the mind, it is false to consider the being of the aggregates as likewise in the mind or mind-dependent. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Causation

Leibniz is best known for his thesis of the preestablished harmony of mind and body, which is treated carefully and in interesting ways by Garber 1983 and Rutherford 1993. The more specific issue of the relation between the dominant monad and its subordinate monads is the subject of Look 2002. Leibniz’s general (and more interesting) causal thesis, which denies interaction among finite substances and his accounts of creation and divine causation, has also been the subject of Sleigh 1990 and Lee 2004, which focus on the relation between Leibniz’s account of divine causation.

Garber, Daniel. “Mind, Body and the Laws of Nature in Descartes and Leibniz.” Midwest Studies in Philosophy 8.1 (1983): 105–133.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4975.1983.tb00462.x Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
A very influential article on the mind-body relation in the philosophy of Descartes and Leibniz. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Lee, Sukjae. “Leibniz on Divine Concurrence.” Philosophical Review 113.2 (2004): 203–248.
DOI: 10.1215/00318108-113-2-203 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Takes up some of the issues present in Sleigh 1990 and shows how it is possible to reconcile Leibniz’s commitments to divine conservation, divine concurrentism, and the preestablished harmony. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Look, Brandon. “On Monadic Domination in Leibniz’s Metaphysics.” British Journal for the History of Philosophy 10.3 (2002): 379–399.
DOI: 10.1080/09608780210143209 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Addresses the issue of how one should understand the relation between dominant and subordinate monads in terms of the properties of monads alone. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Rutherford, Donald P. “Natures, Laws, and Miracles: The Roots of Leibniz’s Critique of Occasionalism.” In Causation in Early Modern Philosophy: Cartesianism, Occasionalism, and Preestablished Harmony. Edited by Steven M. Nadler, 135–158. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993.
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Presents a very helpful account of Leibniz’s doctrine of preestablished harmony in terms of the defects found in Malebranchean occasionalism.
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Sleigh, R. C., Jr. “Leibniz on Malebranche on Causality.” In Central Themes in Early Modern Philosophy: Essays Presented to Jonathan Bennett. Edited by J. A. Cover and Mark Kulstad, 161–193. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1990.
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Discusses Leibniz’s account of divine causation in relation to his rejection of occasionalism.
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Modality

Leibniz’s view that “there are” (in some sense) an infinity of possible worlds is one that has attracted a fair bit of scholarly attention in recent years. Likewise, his view that individual substances have notions that are “complete” and that humans are nevertheless not necessitated is an important topic of debate. Mondadori 1973 is narrowly focused on the meaning of Leibnizian essentialism, while Nachtomy 2007 offers a broad treatment of Leibniz’s theory of modality and its relation to the nature of individual substances. Brown 1987 and Wilson 1993 consider the particular issue of the nature of compossibility—a fundamental notion for understanding the nature of possible worlds.

Brown, Gregory. “Compossibility, Harmony, and Perfection in Leibniz.” Philosophical Review 96.2 (1987): 173–203.
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Brown shows how, with the proper understanding of individual essences and their relation to God’s perfections, universal harmony and the compossibility of individuals follow. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Mondadori, Fabrizio. “Reference, Essentialism, and Modality in Leibniz’s Metaphysics.” Studia Leibnitiana 5.1 (1973): 74–101.
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A classic essay that lays out the case for Leibnizian “superessentialism”—the thesis that all properties of an individual are essential to it. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Nachtomy, Ohad. Possibility, Agency, and Individuality in Leibniz’s Metaphysics. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2007.
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Nachtomy’s book is an extended analysis of Leibniz’s doctrine of modality and how this doctrine relates to his conception of individual substance.
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Wilson, Margaret D. “Compossibility and Law.” In Causation in Early Modern Philosophy: Cartesianism, Occasionalism, and Preestablished Harmony. Edited by Steven M. Nadler, 119–133. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993.
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Argues that the proper way to interpret compossibility is to see it as a function of both the logical consistency of complete individual substances and the consistency of sets of physical laws.
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Freedom

Leibniz developed his account of possible worlds in large part in order to preserve contingency and human freedom. He was still, of course, committed to determinism and divine omniscience. Murray 1995 takes up the challenge of explaining human freedom, given God’s foreknowledge of all future contingents. Davidson 1998 explains how to reconcile Leibniz’s commitments to human freedom and determinism. Rutherford 2005 examines how substances can be both “spontaneous” in the sense that their actions follow from their inner stores and “free” in the sense relevant to morality.

Davidson, Jack. “Imitators of God: Leibniz on Human Freedom.” Journal of the History of Philosophy 36.3 (1998): 387–412.
DOI: 10.1353/hph.2008.0860 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Takes up and rejects a reading of Leibniz, according to which he is an incompatibilist with respect to human freedom; in the end, gives a sophisticated and nuanced interpretation of Leibniz as compatibilist. Available online by subscription.
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Murray, Michael J. “Leibniz on Divine Foreknowledge of Future Contingents and Human Freedom.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 55.1 (1995): 75–108.
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Sets Leibniz’s account of freedom in its historical background among rival Christian (especially Catholic) doctrines of free will. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Rutherford, Donald. “Leibniz on Spontaneity.” In Leibniz: Nature and Freedom. Edited by Donald Rutherford and J. A. Cover, 156–180. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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Makes an important and helpful distinction between “monadic spontaneity” and “agent spontaneity” and shows how the latter can be connected with the notion of freedom in the sense relevant to morality.
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The Great Principles of All Our Reasoning

Leibniz was proud to have made explicit the important principle that underlies much of our reasoning: the principle of sufficient reason. No less important in his system are the principle of contradiction and the principle of the identity of indiscernibles. Sleigh 1982 and Sleigh 1983 are best read together. They offer a rich interpretation of Leibniz’s account of truth and his principles of contradiction and sufficient reason. Herring 1957, Kauppi 1966, and Jauernig 2008 are all devoted to the Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles.

Herring, Herbert. “Leibniz’ Principium Identitatis Indiscernibilium und die Leibniz-Kritik Kants.” Kant-Studien 49 (1957): 389–400.
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A very interesting article about the Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles (PII). Herring shows how the PII was criticized in the “Amphiboly” (pp. 366–383) chapter of Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
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Jauernig, Anja. “The Modal Strength of Leibniz’s Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles.” Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy. Vol. 4. Edited by Daniel Gardner and Steven M. Nader, 191–225. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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Examines the important question of whether the principle of the identity of indiscernibles should be considered a necessary or contingent truth.
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Kauppi, Raili. “Einige Bemerkungen zum Principium Identitatis Indiscernibilium bei Leibniz.” Zeitschrift für Philosophische Forschung 20.3/4 (1966): 497–506.
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This article, along with Herring 1957, is somewhat dated—nevertheless useful. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Sleigh, R. C., Jr. “Truth and Sufficient Reason in the Philosophy of Leibniz.” In Leibniz: Critical and Interpretive Essays. Edited by Michael Hooker, 209–242. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982.
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The first of Sleigh’s two articles on the Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR), this one showing the tight relation between the PSR and Leibniz’s concept-containment notion of truth.
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Sleigh, R. C., Jr. “Leibniz on the Two Great Principles of All Our Reasoning.” Midwest Studies in Philosophy 8.1 (1983): 193–216.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4975.1983.tb00467.x Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
In this article, Sleigh discusses the Principle of Sufficient Reason and its relation to the Principle of Contradiction. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Vinculum Substantiale

Blondel 1930, Fremont 1999, and Look 1999 consider a puzzle in Leibniz’s late metaphysics: his account of the substantial bond (vinculum substantiale) from the correspondence with Des Bosses. Whereas Blondel 1930 and Fremont 1999 read Leibniz’s utterances as a real commitment to the bond (and argue for the importance of religious dogma), Look 1999 shows that the substantial bond cannot be part of Leibniz’s mature view—even though the author represents a recognition on Leibniz’s part of some difficulties in his system.

Blondel, Maurice. Le “Vinculum Substantiale” d’après Leibniz et l’ébauche d’un réalisme supérieur. Paris: Beauchesne, 1930.
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The first sustained treatment of the issue of the “vinculum substantiale” in Leibniz’s metaphysics.
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Fremont, Christiane, ed. L’Être et la relation: Avec trente-sept lettres de Leibniz au R.P. Des Bosses. 2d ed. Paris: Vrin, 1999.
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Mainly a French translation of Leibniz’s correspondence with Des Bosses. The book, however, contains a long introduction, in which Fremont argues for the centrality of the doctrine in Leibniz’s philosophy.
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Look, Brandon C. Leibniz and the “Vinculum Substantiale.” Studia Leibnitiana Sonderheft 30. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999.
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Argues against Fremont and Blondel.
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Logic and Philosophy of Language

Leibniz’s work on logic was not unearthed until the 19th and 20th centuries; therefore, he had little actual influence on the development of logic. Nevertheless, his work is generally regarded as being among the most interesting and insightful produced between Aristotle and Gottlob Frege (b. 1848–d. 1925). His ruminations on topics in the philosophy of language are also well worth study. Couturat 1985 and Kauppi 1960 are still probably the best and most accessible accounts of Leibniz’s logic. Martin 1964 and Parkinson 1965 form a natural pair with their emphasis on the interplay between Leibniz’s logic and metaphysics. Mates 1989 and Ishiguro 1990 likewise form a natural pair with their emphasis on Leibniz’s philosophy of language. Both are very much works of the 1970s and 1980s with their attention to problems in the philosophy of language that might seem less pressing now. Burkhardt 1980 is a formally rigorous account of Leibniz’s logic; while difficult, it is very helpful. Finally, Mugnai 1992 treats the particular problem of Leibniz’s account of relational properties.

Burkhardt, Hans. Logik und Semiotik in der Philosophie von Leibniz. Munich: Philosophia-Verlag, 1980.
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A very detailed work on Leibniz’s logic and semantics.
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Couturat, Louis. La logique de Leibniz d’après des documents inédits. Hildesheim, West Germany: Olms, 1985.
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Cited as well under Classic Studies. This is a deep and penetrating account of Leibniz’s logic and its relation to his metaphysics. Originally published in 1901.
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Ishiguro, Hidé. Leibniz’s Philosophy of Logic and Language. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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Narrower in scope than Mates 1989, but still very much worth serious study.
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Kauppi, Raili. Über die Leibnizsche Logik, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Problems der Intension und der Extension. Acta philosophica Fennica fasc. 12. Helsinki: Edidit Societas Philosophica, 1960.
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An outstanding investigation of Leibniz’s logic. For students interested in Leibniz’s logic (and able to read German), this is the first book to consult.
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Martin, Gottfried. Leibniz: Logic and Metaphysics. Translated by K. J. Northcott and R. G. Lucas. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1964.
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An interesting book that has as much to say about Leibniz’s metaphysics as it does about his logic. Indeed, the “logic” referred to in the title is far from the formal and rigorous logic of Leibniz that is the subject of Kauppi 1960 and Burkhardt 1980. English translation of Leibniz: Logik und Metaphysik (Cologne: University of Cologne Press, 1960).
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Mates, Benson. The Philosophy of Leibniz: Metaphysics and Language. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
DOI: 10.1093/0195059468.001.0001 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
An important book that discusses some of the thorniest issues in Leibniz’s metaphysics and their relation to topics in logic and the philosophy of language.
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Mugnai, Massimo. Leibniz’ Theory of Relations. Studia Leibnitiana Supplementa 28. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1992.
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While Leibniz’s theory of relations might seem like a minor topic, Mugnai weaves this into a deep and historically rich account of Leibniz’s logic and metaphysics.
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Parkinson, G. H. R. Logic and Reality in Leibniz’s Metaphysics. Oxford: Clarendon, 1965.
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Brings together Leibniz’s concerns in logic and his metaphysics. In some ways this book is written in the spirit of Russell 1937 (cited under Classic Studies), but it is textually and historically more sensitive.
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Theory of Knowledge and Philosophy of Mind

Leibniz’s epistemology has not received the same level of attention as his metaphysics, which is perhaps understandable. But Leibniz was an important thinker on topics relating to the theory of knowledge and philosophy of mind. Jolley 1990 is a general treatment of the theory of ideas in early modern philosophy. Jolley 1984 treats the Nouveaus Essais, which is to say the one book-length exposition of epistemological issues. Kulstad 1991 is still probably the best account of Leibniz’s philosophy of mind. Simmons 2001 explains Leibniz’s theory of mental content. Jorgensen 2009 considers Leibniz’s account of consciousness.

Jolley, Nicholas. Leibniz and Locke: A Study of the New Essays on Human Understanding. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984.
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Nowhere is the contrast between “British empiricism” and “continental rationalism” more clearly on view than in Leibniz’s Nouveaux Essais. This book offers many valuable insights on Leibniz’s epistemology.
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Jolley, Nicholas. The Light of the Soul: Theories of Ideas in Leibniz, Malebranche, and Descartes. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990.
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An insightful study of the ideas in these three thinkers. The Leibniz section is very helpful for understanding Leibniz’s account of mind and mental content.
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Jorgensen, Larry M. “The Principle of Continuity and Leibniz’s Theory of Consciousness.” Journal of the History of Philosophy 47.2 (2009): 223–248.
DOI: 10.1353/hph.0.0112 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Considers several different interpretations of consciousness and argues that they violate Leibniz’s commitment to the principle of continuity. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Kulstad, Mark. Leibniz on Apperception, Consciousness, and Reflection. Munich: Philosophia, 1991.
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This is a remarkably valuable study of the notions contained in the title—apperception, consciousness, and reflection—both in terms of the subtlety of its philosophical analysis and in terms of its historical sense. It shows how Leibniz’s view is a response to Locke’s and at the same time part of a longer philosophical tradition going back to Plato.
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Simmons, Alison. “Changing the Cartesian Mind: Leibniz on Sensation, Representation and Consciousness.” Philosophical Review 110.1 (2001): 31–75.
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An excellent article on Leibniz’s philosophy of mind and theory of mental content. Simmons shows the important differences between Descartes and Leibniz on the nature of sensation and, more generally, mental representation and argues that Leibniz’s account of petites perceptions and consciousness have been historically underappreciated. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Philosophical Theology, Philosophy of Religion, and Theodicy

It would be an understatement to say that God plays an important role in Leibniz’s philosophy. And the majority of excellent work on Leibniz’s conception of God is part and parcel of the works in metaphysics mentioned elsewhere in this article. The following works are more limited in scope but excellent nonetheless. Jalabert 1960 is the most general account of Leibniz’s philosophical theology. Antognazza 2008 focuses on particular Christian doctrines, Rateau 2008 with the problem of evil.

Antognazza, Maria Rosa. Leibniz on the Trinity and the Incarnation: Reason and Revelation in the Seventeenth Century. Translated by Gerald Parks. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.
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An analysis of certain Christian dogmas in the thought of Leibniz. English translation of Trinità e incarnazione: Il rapporto tra filosofia e teologia rivelata nel pensiero di Leibniz (Milan: Vita e Pensiero, 1999).
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Jalabert, Jacques. Le Dieu de Leibniz. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1960.
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A valuable study of Leibniz’s conception of God, this book includes discussion of the divine intellect and proofs of the existence of God and the nature of divine emanation.
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Rateau, Paul. La question du mal chez Leibniz: Fondements et élaboration de la théodicée. Paris: Champion, 2008.
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A deep and thorough study of the problem of evil in Leibniz, principally as it is addressed in his Theodicy.
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Ethics and Political Philosophy

Leibniz wrote little on ethics and political philosophy in comparison with some of his near contemporaries—Hobbes; Spinoza; Anthony Ashley Cooper, third Earl of Shaftesbury (1671–1713); David Hume (b. 1711–d. 1778); and, later, of course, Immanuel Kant (b. 1724–d. 1804). Indeed, Leibniz’s practical philosophy can generally be regarded as part of the natural-law tradition stretching back to medieval philosophers. Grua 1953 and Grua 1956 are together the best treatments of Leibniz’s practical philosophy, though Riley 1996 is a very valuable study. Brown 2011 can serve not only as an excellent introduction to Leibniz’s practical philosophy but also as a valuable specialist study of his thinking on moral and political issues.

Brown, Gregory. “Disinterested Love: Understanding Leibniz’s Reconciliation of Self- and Other-Regarding Motives.” British Journal for the History of Philosophy 19.2 (2011): 265–303.
DOI: 10.1080/09608788.2011.555162 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Brown shows that Leibniz’s idea of disinterested love is central to his moral and political theory and can be found even in a very early text, written between 1668 and 1671. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Grua, Gaston. Jurisprudence universelle et théodicée selon Leibniz. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1953.
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A detailed and insightful look at the issue of divine justice in Leibniz’s philosophy.
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Grua, Gaston. La justice humaine selon Leibniz. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1956.
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Focuses on moral and political philosophy.
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Riley, Patrick. Leibniz’ Universal Jurisprudence: Justice as the Charity of the Wise. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.
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The best work in English on the subject—shows nicely how Leibniz’s Christian Platonism informs his practical philosophy.
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Philosophy of Science and Mathematics

Leibniz’s work in mathematics and the natural sciences is often inseparable from important issues in philosophy.

Mathematics

De Risi 2007 and Levey 1998 both explore the metaphysical issues involved in Leibniz’s reflections on the nature of mathematics.

Levey, Samuel. “Leibniz on Mathematics and the Actually Infinite Division of Matter.” Philosophical Review 107.1 (1998): 49–96.
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Argues that Leibniz looked to mathematics to clarify his views on the metaphysics of matter but that as a result of doing so was forced to rethink some central mathematical ideas. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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De Risi, Vincenzo. Geometry and Monadology: Leibniz’s Analysis Situs and Philosophy of Space. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser, 2007.
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Shows how Leibniz’s reflections on geometry (“analysis situs,” or “analysis of place”) and the nature of space can be brought to bear on his monadology. A very interesting and important book.
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Physics

Not only was Leibniz a mathematician of the first rank, but he also made important contribution to physics. Guéroult 1967 and Duchesneau 1994 show the connection between Leibniz’s science of dynamics and his reflections on the nature of substance. Garber 1995 is a very helpful introductory essay on Leibnizian physics. Roberts 2003 discusses the important issue of Leibnizian space-time.

Duchesneau, François. La dynamique de Leibniz. Paris: Vrin, 1994.
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The most complete account of Leibniz’s natural philosophy—very valuable.
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Garber, Daniel. “Leibniz: Physics and Philosophy.” In The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Edited by Nicholas Jolley, 270–352. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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An essay devoted to the same subject—an excellent place to start.
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Guéroult, Martial. Leibniz: Dynamique et Métaphysique. 2d ed. Paris: Aubier-Montaigne, 1967.
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An excellent study of the connection between Leibniz’s dynamics and his metaphysics.
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Roberts, John T. “Leibniz on Force and Absolute Motion.” Philosophy of Science 70.3 (2003): 553–573.
DOI: 10.1086/376785 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Argues that absolute speeds are grounded in his concept of force and that space-time structure is therefore stronger than the relationalist space-time as it is usually presented. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Life Science

Only recently have scholars started to look seriously at Leibniz’s work on and interest in the life sciences. This lag is somewhat odd, since the concept of an “organism” seems so central to Leibniz’s metaphysics. Duchesneau 1998 and Duchesneau 2010 were the first sustained accounts of Leibniz’s work in this field. Smith 2011 takes this work further.

Duchesneau, François. Les modèles du vivant de Descartes à Leibniz. Paris: Vrin, 1998.
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Considers how 17th-century philosophers understood the living world. Contains an interesting discussion of Leibniz.
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Duchesneau, François. Leibniz: Le vivant et l’organisme. Paris: Vrin, 2010.
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Monography devoted solely to Leibniz’s thought on the nature of life.
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Smith, Justin E. H. Divine Machines: Leibniz and the Sciences of Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.
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Considers in fascinating detail Leibniz’s interest in the developing science of life.
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The Reception of Leibniz’s Philosophy

An understanding of Leibniz’s philosophy would not be complete without an understanding of its historical significance. The following studies are mainly concerned with the history of Leibniz’s philosophy and Leibnizianism in the 18th century. Ludovici 1966 offers a “firsthand” treatment of early 18th-century understandings of the nature and importance of Leibniz’s philosophy. Wundt 1992 treats all of 18th-century German philosophy and, naturally, Leibniz and Leibnizianism feature prominently in the narrative. Beck 1969 is the best general account in English of pre-Kantian German philosophy. Wilson 1995 is more limited in scope, but a good place to start.

Beck, Lewis White. Early German Philosophy: Kant and His Predecessors. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969.
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The standard account of the history of pre-Kantian German philosophy, which covers Leibniz and the reception of Leibnizian philosophy. But the work is flawed insofar as it has a “teleological” reading—seeing everything in terms of how it produced Kant.
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Ludovici, Carl Günther. Ausführlicher Entwurff einer vollständigen Historie der Leibnitzischen Philosophie. 2 vols. Hildesheim, West Germany: Olms, 1966.
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An 18th-century account of the reception of Leibniz’s thought in Germany. Originally published in 1737.
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Wilson, Catherine. “The Reception of Leibniz in the Eighteenth Century.” In The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Edited by Nicholas Jolley, 442–474. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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A very helpful essay on the subject.
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Wundt, Max. Die deutsche Schulphilosophie im Zeitalter der Aufklärung. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms, 1992.
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An excellent study of 18th-century German philosophy. Originally published in 1945.
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Philosophy

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