Daoism and Philosophy

by

Jung Lee

• LAST REVIEWED: 07 September 2022
• LAST MODIFIED: 11 January 2018
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195396577-0360

Introduction

Along with Confucianism, Daoism represents one of the major indigenous philosophical and religious traditions of China. Although we can trace the origins of Daoism to the 4th century BCE, the term “Daoism” (daojia 道家, lit. “family of the Way”) only gained currency during the Western Han (206 BCE–6 CE) when the neologism was coined by the historian Sima Tan 司馬談 (d. 110 BCE) in his “Essentials of the Six Schools” (liujia zhi yaozhi 六家之要指), long after the introduction of such foundational texts as the Laozi 老子and Zhuangzi 莊子. Having said that, we can note certain family resemblances among textual sources and master-disciple lineages during the pre-Han period that point to shared views on the cosmology of the Way (dao 道, lit. “road” or “path”), the ultimate metaphysical force in the cosmos, and self-cultivation practices or “techniques of the Way” (dao shu 道術) that would enable the adept to attune or merge with the Way and lead a more realized life. It is the presence of these “techniques of the Way” that led Sima Tan to label certain individual “experts” and practitioners “Daoists.” Toward the end of the Eastern Han in 142 CE, we witness the beginnings of Daoism as an organized, institutional religion with the founding of the Way of the Celestial Masters (tian shi dao 天師道) and then later with the emergence of subsequent religious communities like the Shangqing 上清 or Highest Clarity and Quanzhen 全真 or Complete Perfection. Although there has been an historical proclivity, now less pronounced, on the part of some Chinese scholars and Western sinologists to bifurcate Daoism into “philosophical Daoism” and “religious Daoism,” the distinction needlessly essentializes aspects of Daoism and ignores the complex process of poetic influence and conceptual appropriation within the tradition. With this in mind, this entry will focus on selections that highlight the philosophical dimensions of the Daoist tradition, beginning with a section on Daoism in the context of early Chinese philosophy along with dedicated sections on the Laozi and Zhuangzi. The rest of the entry will be organized into topics that address particular aspects of Daoist philosophy, including epistemology, ethics, metaphysics, social and political philosophy, and comparative studies.

General Overviews

Introductory works and general overviews of Daoism face enormous challenges in terms of disabusing readers of lingering misconceptions, making methodological choices about sources and periods, and striking a balance between accessibility and coverage. Sivin 1978 reflects on the terminological perplexities of the term “Daoism” and the histories of interpretation that have contributed to its vagueness and ambiguity. Kirkland 2004 addresses some of the “hermeneutical challenges” of studying Daoism and attempts to expand the study of Daoism to more than the “classical legacy.” Komjathy 2013, Littlejohn 2009, and Miller 2003 offer very accessible overviews of Daoism that cover the entire history of the tradition. Coutinho 2014 focuses more on Daoist philosophy, particularly the foundational texts of the classical period, while Maspero 1981 and Robinet 1997 highlight the religious dimensions of the tradition.

• Coutinho, Steve. An Introduction to Daoist Philosophies. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.

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  A concise, nuanced introduction to early Daoist philosophy, particularly of the Laozi, Zhuangzi, and Liezi. Beyond a detailed examination of these foundational texts and some of their fundamental concepts, the book also engages in a methodological discussion about the perils of comparative philosophy when reading early Daoist texts.

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• Kirkland, Russell. Taoism: The Enduring Tradition. New York: Routledge, 2004.

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  This is an introductory work that addresses some of the “hermeneutical challenges” of studying Daoism, particularly in regard to the legacy of Orientalism in the West. Challenges many of the received interpretations of Daoism and attempts to expand the parameters of Daoism beyond the “classical legacy.”

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• Komjathy, Louis. The Daoist Tradition: An Introduction. New York: Bloomsbury, 2013.

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  An introduction to Daoism that advances a “continuous tradition” view that rejects the distinction between “philosophical Daoism” and “religious Daoism” and suggests that there are significant continuities between early master-disciple lineages during the classical period and later religious movements. Dedicates a significant amount of space to Daoist cultivation practices.

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• Littlejohn, Ronnie L. Daoism: An Introduction. New York: Tauris, 2009.

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  Introduces the reader to Daoism through the analogy of a kudzu vine, arguing that the “great vine of Daoism” can be viewed as a trunk, branches, and overlapping vines and stems. This is perhaps a more contextualized discussion of Daoism than many other introductory works and takes into consideration the influence of place and history as well as the effects of material culture on the growth of the Daoist tradition.

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• Maspero, Henri. Taoism and Chinese Religion. Translated by Frank A. Kierman Jr. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981.

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  Published posthumously, this influential volume includes nine important essays by the French sinologist on a range of subjects in Chinese religion. Chapters like “An Essay on Taoism in the First Centuries A.D.” effectively contextualize the thought and practice of early Daoism within the larger history of Chinese religion. Originally published in French as Le Taoïsme et les religions chinoises (Paris: Gallimard, 1971).

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• Miller, James. Daoism: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld, 2003.

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  An accessible introductory work intended for undergraduates that is organized thematically around eight fundamental concepts (identity, way, body, power, light, alchemy, text, nature) and an historical introduction. Written from the perspective of an educator, the book attempts to give the reader the hermeneutic tools to develop her own understanding of Daoism.

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• Robinet, Isabelle. Taoism: Growth of a Religion. Translated by Phyllis Brooks. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.

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  A comprehensive history of Daoism that traces the origins and development of the Daoist religion. The book is organized as a history of ideas which seeks to map the major lines of “doctrinal evolution” within the religion. Originally published in French as Histoire du taoïsme: Des origines au XIVe siècle (Paris: Cerf, 1991).

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• Sivin, Nathan. “On the Word ‘Taoist’ as a Source of Perplexity. With Special Reference to the Relations of Science and Religion in Traditional China.” History of Religions 17.3–4 (1978): 303–330.

  DOI: 10.1086/462796Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A seminal article that addresses the problematic nature of the term “Daoism,” particularly in regard to the artificial distinction between “philosophical Daoism” and “religious Daoism.” Notes how the lexical ambiguities and conceptual vagueness of the term have been exploited by different parties for competing rhetorical purposes. Available online by subscription.

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Reference Works

There are now state of the art reference materials on Daoism. Kohn 2000 and Pregadio 2008 provide encyclopedic coverage of all aspects of the Daoist tradition by leading scholars. Liu 2015 is a more specialized reference work for those who are interested primarily in Daoist philosophy. Loewe 1993 is a bibliographical guide for early Chinese texts in general, but contains helpful entries on Daoist literature that is useful for understanding a text’s composition, dating, and textual history. Seidel 1989–1990, van der Leuww 1999, Verellen 1995, and Vittinghoff 2001 provide bibliographic information for recent work on Daoism in Western languages. And Kleeman 1991 features a more specialized bibliographic guide for Daoist ethics.

• Kleeman, Terry F. “Taoist Ethics.” In A Bibliographic Guide to the Comparative Study of Ethics. Edited by John Carman and Mark Juergensmeyer, 162–194. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

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  Focuses on the norms and values of Daoist religious communities after the Han. Locates the ethical concepts of the Daoist tradition within the context of religious studies and the sociocultural history of China. The bibliography is divided into a very helpful “Tradition Outline.”

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• Kohn, Livia, ed. Daoism Handbook. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.

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  Part of the Handbook of Oriental Studies from Brill, this anthology features twenty-eight entries on a wide-ranging set of topics by leading scholars in the field. Most entries are schematically divided into sections on history, texts, worldview, and practices, enabling a greater ease of reference but also leading to some repetition. A valuable guide for the study of Daoism.

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• Liu, Xiaogan, ed. Dao Companion to Daoist Philosophy. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2015.

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  A part of the Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy series, this volume includes twenty-four chapters by leading scholars on various aspects of Daoist philosophy, beginning with the foundational texts of the classical period, moving on to Huang-Lao tradition of the Han, the “Dark Learning” of the Wei-Jin, and ending with chapters comparing Daoism to other traditions. A very useful resource for the student of Daoist philosophy.

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• Loewe, Michael, ed. Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1993.

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  Contains concise bibliographical essays that provide textual histories, including information on dating, textual transmission, editions, and the commentarial tradition, on most of the important texts of early Chinese philosophy. Although some of the information has now become dated, the entries on the Chuang tzu (Zhuangzi), Lao tzu Tao de ching (Laozi), and the Huai nan tzu (Huainanzi) will be helpful for those students interested in the composition and history of early Daoist texts.

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• Pregadio, Fabrizio, ed. The Encyclopedia of Taoism. 2 vols. New York: Routledge, 2008.

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  This two-volume set contains 841 entries that are divided into four thematic sections—“Overview,” “The Taoist Universe,” “History,” and “Forms of Religious Practice and Experience.” The breadth and scope of these volumes is unmatched in the literature and almost every topic related to Daoism will be represented in some form. Also contains a valuable bibliography.

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• Seidel, Anna. “Chronicle of Taoist Studies in the West 1950–1990.” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 5 (1989–1990): 223–347.

  DOI: 10.3406/asie.1989.950Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A bibliographical essay of Daoist Studies in Western scholarship during the latter half of the 20th century. The selection of works, according to the author, is not based on the actual importance of the relevant work in the “whole scheme of Taoism” but the interest and study a topic has generated among Western scholars. Sections include the “History of Taoism,” “The Taoist Universe,” and “Taoism in Chinese Culture.”

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• van der Leuww, Karel L. “The Study of Chinese Philosophy in the West: A Bibliographic Introduction.” China Review International 6.2 (1999): 332–372.

  DOI: 10.1353/cri.1999.0028Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A bibliographical essay on recent work on Chinese philosophy in Western languages (primarily English, French, German). Provides a helpful narrative in thinking about early Chinese philosophy, including Daoism, in the context of the history of sinology in the West. Available online by subscription.

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• Verellen, Franciscus. “Taoism.” Journal of Asian Studies 54.2 (1995): 322–346.

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  This bibliographic essay is part of the Journal of Asian Studies focus issue on “Chinese Religions: The State of the Field.” The essay focuses on recent work in Western scholarship on “Taoist Thought and Practice,” “History,” and “Sources.” Intended for the non-specialist working in Western languages. Available online by subscription.

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• Vittinghoff, Helmott. “Daoism and the Daoist Founders (Daojia).” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 28.1–2 (2001): 93–150.

  DOI: 10.1111/0301-8121.00038Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An extensive bibliography that will be particularly helpful to the student interested in Daoist philosophy. Includes instructive headings (e.g., “Works Indispensable for the Specialist”) that will guide the reader to the appropriate sources and contains subsections devoted to comparative studies. Available online by subscription.

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Daoism and Early Chinese Philosophy

Daoism emerged during the Warring States Period (479–221 BCE) within a lively philosophical landscape that already included followers of Confucius, Mozi, and perhaps a group of thinkers we now classify as Yangist as well as a more diffuse cohort of “dialecticians” (bian zhe 辯者), sometimes called the School of Names (ming jia 名家), who specialized in logic and “disputation.” The selections listed here speak to the philosophical concerns of Daoist sources in the context of early Chinese philosophy. Nivison 1999 provides an insightful, compressed overview of early Chinese philosophy. Graham 1989 and Schwartz 1985 are both landmark studies of intellectual history that have influenced recent interpretations of early Daoism and Chinese philosophy. Hansen 1990 presents a provocative, alternative reading to the “ruling interpretive theory” of Chinese philosophy based on a linguistic theory of “prescriptive discourses.” Allan 1997 interprets early Chinese thought through the “root metaphors” of water and plant life while Girardot 1983 highlights the religious and mythological dimensions of early Daoism through the symbol of chaos. Roth 1999 argues that the origins of Daoism can be traced to the mystical philosophy of the Neiye 內業 (“Inward Training”) chapter of the Guanzi 管子. This study has been influential in discussions of Daoist mysticism and the history of early Daoism more generally.

• Allan, Sarah. The Way of Water and Sprouts of Virtue. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997.

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  Interprets early Chinese philosophy through the “root metaphors” of water and plant life, arguing that, unlike the ancient Greeks and Judeo-Christian traditions, Chinese philosophy borrowed its central metaphors from the natural world. Provides detailed readings of the Laozi and Zhuangzi based on this theory of metaphors.

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• Girardot, Norman J. Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Theme of Chaos (hun-tun). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.

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  Analyzes early Daoist texts through the symbol of chaos (hundun 混沌), arguing that the soteriological goal of early Daoists is a “resynchronization” with primal chaos. In this way, the author makes a case for the religious nature of Daoism from the very beginning.

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• Graham, A. C. Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China. La Salle, IL: Open Court, 1989.

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  A comprehensive intellectual history of early Chinese philosophy with careful attention paid to matters of philology, textual history, and methods of argument. The most insightful sections of the book are those that deal with early Daoism, particularly the Zhuangzi, and the logic of Mohists and Sophists. Some parts may be too technical for the beginning student. A very influential work that continues to inform contemporary discussions in the discipline.

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• Hansen, Chad. A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

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  A provocative interpretation of early Chinese philosophy based on a linguistic theory of daos or “prescriptive discourses.” Arguing against the “ruling interpretive theory” which tends to privilege Confucianism and marginalize Daoism as a form of antirational mysticism, the author suggests that the central problem animating early Chinese philosophy is normative pragmatics, or how daos guide behavior.

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• Nivison, David S. “The Classical Philosophical Writings.” In The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B. C. Edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy, 745–812. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

  DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521470308.013Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A brief, illuminating intellectual history of Chinese philosophy during the classical period. Written by one of the foremost scholars of early Chinese philosophical thought.

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• Roth, Harold D. Original Tao: Inward Training and the Foundations of Taoist Mysticism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.

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  Translation and analysis of the Neiye chapter of the Guanzi. The author argues that the earliest sources of Daoism can be traced to the Neiye and that common methods of inner cultivation, central to the Neiye, inform early Daoism as a whole. Also includes helpful discussions of competing definitions of “Daoism” and comparative mysticism.

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• Schwartz, Benjamin I. The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985.

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  A work of intellectual history that traces the evolution of thought in ancient China from the Neolithic period down to the Han. Although one could argue that the most penetrating parts of the book are the discussions devoted to Confucianism, the sections on Daoism and the intellectual context of the Warring States Period remain valuable to the historian of Chinese thought.

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Laozi

According to Sima Qian 司馬遷, Laozi 老子 (lit. “old master”) was an archivist who served in the Zhou court with a surname of Li 李 and a given name of either Dan 聃 or Er 耳. Legend further has it that he was approached by Confucius who sought his wisdom on the rites (li 禮). Before retiring to the western frontier, Laozi supposedly left a poem of five thousand characters that we now know as the Daodejing 道德經 or the Classic of the Way and Its Power. In terms of philosophical content, the Laozi is concerned with the workings of the Dao and its manifestation within nature. Much of the book revolves around how human beings can attune themselves with the Dao to lead more spontaneous, natural lives, particularly in the case of the sage-ruler who is said to act through “non-action” (wu-wei 無為). Graham 1990 examines the legend of Lao Dan and the possible political and polemical contexts for the creation of the narrative of Laozi as the “founder” of Daoism. Behuniak 2009, LaFargue 1994, Kohn and LaFargue 1998, and Chan 1991 address issues related to the dating, authorship, and composition of the Laozi text along with the commentarial tradition. Allan and Williams 2000 discusses the archaeological discovery of bamboo slips in Guodian, Hubei Province, in 1993 and what the newly discovered texts mean for our understanding of the Laozi. Kaltenmark 1969 and Csikszentmihalyi and Ivanhoe 1999 explore religious and philosophical themes in the Laozi, and Moeller 2006 engages the text in conversation with nontraditional contemporary philosophies.

• Allan, Sarah, and Crispin Williams, eds. The Guodian Laozi: Proceedings of the International Conference on the Guodian Laozi. Early China Special Monograph Series No. 5. Berkeley, CA: Institute for East Asian Studies, 2000.

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  Proceedings and essays from an international conference held at Dartmouth College in 1998 on the recently discovered bamboo slips from the town of Guodian 郭店, Hubei Province. The volume includes nine essays on topics ranging from the relationship of the Guodian Laozi to the received version, issues in archaeology, and the ordering of the slips. Also includes an annotated version of the Guodian Laozi as well as a transcription of the discussion from the conference.

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• Behuniak, James, Jr. “‘Embracing the One’ in the Daodejing.” Philosophy East and West 59.3 (2009): 364–381.

  DOI: 10.1353/pew.0.0065Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Argues that we can view the Laozi as originating in a “manuscript culture” where texts are repeatedly modified and amended in contrast to a “print culture” where texts are printed once and resist modification or change. This is the context for a discussion of the development of the ideas of “holding to the One” (zhiyi 執一) and “embracing the One” (baoyi 抱一) in different versions of the Laozi.

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• Chan, Alan K. L. Two Visions of the Way: A Study of the Wang Pi and the Ho-shang Kung Commentaries on the Lao-Tzu. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991.

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  An “historical and comparative” study of the commentarial traditions of Wang Bi 王弼 and Heshang Gong 河上公. Although Wang Bi’s commentary is often read as “philosophical” while Heshang Gong’s commentary is viewed as “religious,” the author suggests that this contrast elides the practical dimensions of both commentaries, especially in regard to ethics and government.

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• Csikszentmihalyi, Mark, and Philip J. Ivanhoe, eds. Religious and Philosophical Aspects of the Laozi. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.

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  A wide-ranging collection of nine essays by leading scholars on various aspects of the Laozi, from questions of mysticism to matters of ontology and ethics. The essays, in large measure, tend to privilege a philosophical perspective and method in the various readings of the text.

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• Graham, A. C. “The Origins of the Legend of Lao Tan.” In Studies in Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical Literature. By A. C. Graham, 111–124. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990.

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  Analyzes the myth of Lao Tan as the putative founder of Daoism in terms of the polemical and political interests of competing groups during the 3rd century BCE.

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• Kaltenmark, Max. Lao Tzu and Taoism. Translated by Roger Greaves. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1969.

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  A very accessible study of the Laozi, Zhuangzi, and, to a lesser extent, Daoist religious movements. Kaltenmark, like Maspero, understands the classical tradition from a religious perspective and sees texts like the Laozi and Zhuangzi as advocating a “spiritual immortality” based on certain meditative techniques. Originally published in French as Lao tseu et le taoïsme (Paris: Points, 1965).

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• Kohn, Livia, and Michael LaFargue, eds. Lao-tzu and the Tao-te-ching. Albany: State University of New York, 1998.

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  A collection of twelve essays (roughly half are reprints) on various aspects of the Laozi. The volume is divided into four sections: “Ancient Myths,” “Chinese Interpretations,” “Modern Readings,” and “Critical Methods.” Helpful in understanding the commentarial tradition and the historical reception of the text.

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• LaFargue, Michael. Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.

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  Suggests that the received text of the Laozi originated in a “Laoist school” contemporaneous with Mencius and his followers. Based on form-critical textual analysis, the author details the various layers and composition of the text, and based on this hermeneutics, offers a new translation. Does not fully incorporate the Mawangdui silk texts and relies on the received Wang Bi version.

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• Moeller, Hans-Georg. The Philosophy of the Daodejing. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.

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  Presents the Laozi as a kind of “non-humanistic philosophy” that can illuminate subjects as wide-ranging as sex, the death penalty, and rulership. Compares the “nontraditional” and “nonlinear” structure of the text to the Internet, likening it to a modern-day “hypertext.” A provocative reading of the Laozi.

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Zhuangzi

The Zhuangzi has historically enjoyed the reputation as one of the two foundational texts of the early Daoist tradition. The Shiji 史記 (Records of the Grand Historian) describes the namesake of the text, Zhuang Zhou 莊周, as a contemporary of the Hui 惠 king of Liang 梁 (370–319 BCE) and the Xuan 宣 king of Qi 齊 (319–301 BCE). The received edition of the text stems from the thirty-three-chapter version edited by Guo Xiang 郭象 (d. 312 CE) and features seven “Inner Chapters,” fifteen “Outer Chapters,” and eleven “Miscellaneous” chapters. Traditionally, the oldest stratum of the received text was thought to be the “Inner Chapters,” most or all of which were thought to have been written by the historical Zhuang Zhou. Graham 1990 and Liu 1994 affirm the relative dating of the “Inner Chapters” as the oldest stratum of the text and ascribe authorship to Zhuang Zhou while Klein 2010 challenges the conventional dating and composition of the text and suggests that there is no conclusive proof that the “Inner Chapters” existed as a coherent unit prior to the Han. Wu 1990 examines some of the key themes of the first three chapters—the notion of wandering, spontaneity, and nourishing life. Ames 1998, Cook 2003, Kjellberg and Ivanhoe 1996, Mair 1983, and Kohn 2015 reflect on different aspects of the Zhuangzi, frequently engaging the text on matters related to epistemology, ethics, and spirituality. Møllgaard 2007 engages continental philosophers in his constructive analysis of the text.

• Ames, Roger T., ed. Wandering at Ease in the Zhuangzi. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998.

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  A collection of eleven essays on various aspects of the Zhuangzi plus an introduction by the editor. The title is meant to play on the Zhuangzian notion of “wandering” (you 遊), but the essays run the gamut in terms of subject matter, from notions of the self or “no-self” (Jochim) to comparisons with Henry Miller (Peerenboom) to transformational humor (Sellman). Ironically, the notion of “wandering” is treated only briefly in the discussion of “flow.”

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• Cook, Scott, ed. Hiding the World in the World: Uneven Discourses on the Zhuangzi. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003.

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  This set of ten essays grew out of a symposium held on the “Qiwulun” chapter of the Zhuangzi, and the contributions reflect many of the traditional philosophical preoccupations of commentators—mysticism (Roth, Ziporyn, Cook), epistemology (Hansen, Lusthaus), “non-action” (Fox), and “Heaven” (Puett). Goldin’s essay discusses the appropriateness of the mind-body distinction in pre-Han China.

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• Graham, A. C. “How Much of Chuang Tzu Did Chuang Tzu Write?” In Studies in Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical Literature. By A. C. Graham, 283–321. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990.

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  Argues for a stratified view of the received text with different authorial voices—namely, Zhuangzi himself, his followers, a group he calls the “Primitivists,” the Yangists, and a group he associates with Huang-Lao thought called the “Syncretists.” A very influential study, though becoming more controversial (compare Klein 2010 and Liu 1994).

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• Kjellberg, Paul, and Philip J. Ivanhoe, eds. Essays on Skepticism, Relativism, and Ethics in the Zhuangzi. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.

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  A collection of nine essays devoted to the epistemological and normative dimensions of the Zhuangzi. Many essays are devoted to exploring the relationship between the putative skepticism or relativism of the Zhuangzi and its ideals of human flourishing, particularly in regard to “skillful” action. Also includes an extensive bibliography.

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• Klein, Esther. “Were There ‘Inner Chapters’ in the Warring States? A New Examination of Evidence about the Zhuangzi.” T’oung Pao 96.4/5 (2010): 299–369.

  DOI: 10.1163/156853210X546509Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Challenges the long-held assumption that the “Inner Chapters” constitute the earliest stratum of the Zhuangzi and that they were written by a single hand as a coherent unit. Relying on pre-Han and Han sources, the author suggests that there is no conclusive proof that the “Inner Chapters” existed prior to the Han. Raises the possibility of a Zhuangzi text compiled at the court of Liu An. (Compare Graham 1990 and Liu 1994). Available online by subscription.

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• Kohn, Livia, ed. New Visions of the Zhuangzi. St. Petersburg, FL: Three Pines, 2015.

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  This eclectic collection of thirteen essays grew out of the Ninth International Conference on Daoist Studies in 2014. Beyond traditional Zhuangzian topics like epistemology, cosmology, and language, some essays venture into less familiar ground like fashion, neurophysiology, and becoming reconciled with our contemporary existential situation.

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• Liu, Xiaogan. Classifying the Zhuangzi Chapters. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1994.

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  This is a detailed textual study of the dating, authorship, and composition of the Zhuangzi. Liu argues the “Inner Chapters” were written by the historical Zhuang Zhou and represents the earliest stratum of the received text. The later “Outer” and “Miscellaneous” chapters can be classified into three distinct schools: the Transmitters (17–27, 32), the Huang-Lao School (11B-16, 33), and the Anarchists (8–11A, 28–29, 31). (Compare Graham 1990 and Klein 2010).

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• Mair, Victor H., ed. Experimental Essays on Chuang-tzu. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1983.

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  An influential collection of eight essays on various aspects of the Zhuangzi intended for a general audience. The contributions by Graham, Hansen, and Yearley will be of particular interest for students of analytic philosophy and religious studies. Also includes a bibliography of Zhuangzi translations prepared by Hellmut Wilhelm.

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• Møllgaard, Eske. An Introduction to Daoist Thought: Action, Language, and Ethics in Zhuangzi. New York: Routledge, 2007.

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  A comprehensive introduction to the Zhuangzi that engages major Continental philosophers like Agamben, Hadot, Nietzsche, and Zizek on themes such as the metaphysics of action, freedom from domination, spiritual exercises, and the moral life. At the center of the account is what the author calls Zhuangzi’s unraveling (jie 解) of the “drive for completion” exemplified in the Confucian view of technical action and the Mohist and Legalist aspirations toward totalitarianism.

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• Wu, Kuang-ming. The Butterfly as Companion: Meditations on the First Three Chapters of the Chuang Tzu. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990.

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  A translation of the first three chapters of the Zhuangzi with extensive glosses and meditations on the text. Provocatively engages Western philosophers like Plato and Kant, and unlike many philosophical studies, examines the text as a piece of literature, giving attention to stylistic matters like rhyme, image, and allusion.

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Epistemology

The study of knowledge in Daoist sources begins with the problematic nature of human faculties in regard to understanding the nature of ultimate reality or the Dao 道. Given the unreliability of our senses, how can human beings attain a true understanding of the Dao? What is the relationship between knowledge and action? Does language frustrate our aspirations for knowledge? These are some of the questions that are asked by Daoist thinkers. Much of the recent work in Daoist epistemology concerns the issue of skepticism, particularly in the Zhuangzi. Wong 2005 argues that we should not view Zhuangzi’s skepticism as a set of epistemological positions or beliefs but as a virtue that leads to an enlargement of one’s perspective. Fraser 2009, Goodman 1985, and Ivanhoe 1993 all explore the theme of skepticism in the Zhuangzi and connect epistemological questions with normative ones in terms of living a more fully realized life. Moeller 1999 employs the vehicle of the butterfly dream to investigate Zhuangzi’s epistemology. Allinson 1989 considers the propriety of describing Zhuangzi as a relativist and argues for what he calls an “asymmetrical relativism” that makes better sense of Zhuangzi’s religious vision. And Connolly 2011 engages recent studies of Nietzsche’s epistemology in characterizing Zhuangzi’s epistemology as a kind of perspectivism that aspires to “greater knowledge.”

• Allinson, Robert E. “On the Question of Relativism in the Chuang-tzu.” Philosophy East and West 39.1 (1989): 13–26.

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  Suggests that ascribing strong relativism to the Zhuangzi would make it either unintelligible or self-refuting. Argues for an “asymmetrical relativism” that allows us to make sense of the state of ignorance and the state of sagehood. Available online by subscription.

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• Connolly, Tim. “Perspectivism as a Way of Knowing in the Zhuangzi.” Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 10.4 (2011): 487–505.

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  Understands the epistemology of the Zhuangzi as a kind of perspectivism that concedes the perspective-dependence of all views but aspires for a “greater knowledge” rooted in ideals of human flourishing. Compares Zhuangzi’s perspectivism to recent interpretations of Nietzsche’s epistemology. Available online by subscription.

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• Fraser, Chris. “Skepticism and Value in Zhuangzi.” International Philosophical Quarterly 49.4 (2009): 439–457.

  DOI: 10.5840/ipq200949462Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Argues that we can interpret Zhuangzi’s skepticism and normative views as dependent on a metaethical understanding of value as plural and contingent, which paves the way for equal consideration of others and the virtues of political liberalism. Engages the recent work of Chad Hansen and David Wong on this topic. Available online by subscription.

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• Goodman, Russell B. “Skepticism and Realism in the Chuang-tzu.” Philosophy East and West 35.3 (1985): 231–237.

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  Explores the putative skepticism of the Zhuangzi through engagement with Western philosophers like Wittgenstein, Descartes, Hume, and Thomas Nagel. Suggests that Zhuangzi’s skepticism ultimately leads to a state of nonattachment rather than a clinging to the world. Available online by subscription.

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• Ivanhoe, Philip J. “Zhuangzi on Skepticism, Skill, and the Ineffable Dao.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 61.4 (1993): 639–654.

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  Argues that Zhuangzi is neither a strong skeptic nor a strong relativist but someone with substantive normative views of the Way. Even though we are limited in our human faculties, we can still talk about the Way by pointing to its workings in the skillful activity of sages. Includes a very helpful discussion of the different senses of skepticism and their applicability to the epistemology of the Zhuangzi. Available online by subscription.

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• Moeller, Hans-Georg. “Zhuangzi’s ‘Dream of the Butterfly’—a Daoist Interpretation.” Philosophy East and West 49.4 (1999): 439–450.

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  Argues that a Daoist reading of the butterfly dream counter-intuitively leads to a greater sense of distinctions in the world, a position which he ascribes to Guo Xiang 郭象. Includes a translation of the dream passage followed by Guo Xiang’s commentary. Available online by subscription.

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• Wong, David. “Zhuangzi and the Obsession with Being Right.” History of Philosophy Quarterly 22.2 (2005): 91–107.

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  An exploration of Zhuangzi’s skepticism of the human obsession with “being right.” Engages contemporary analytic philosophy in pondering the interpretive paradox of reading Zhuangzi through our own preconceptions. Available online by subscription.

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Ethics

Although ethics has not received as much attention as some other aspects of Daoist philosophy, Daoist sources have typically framed ethics and normative behavior in general in terms of human responsiveness to the reality of the Dao 道 within the context of the social world. As much as sources like the Laozi and Zhuangzi deconstruct conventional moral norms and mock human frailties, they also offer constructive normative proposals about becoming more attuned to the wider cosmos and living more spontaneous, natural lives. Fraser 2014 presents a eudaimonistic approach to Zhuangzi’s ethics, arguing that the telos of a well-lived life for Zhuangzi lies in the metaethical mode of “wandering.” Lee 2014 suggests that the Zhuangzi contains a Daocentric ethics in which flourishing is dependent on a moral agent’s responsiveness to and attunement with the Dao. Huang 2010 argues that the Zhuangzi embodies an ethics of difference, sensitive to the variety of individual differences, in contrast to the ethics of commonality. Lai 2007 examines the interrelated notion of ziran 自然 and wuwei 無為 in the Laozi and argues that they constitute an ethical framework which supports the avoidance of oppressive norms as a response to human spontaneity. Kirkland 1986 and Wong 1984 both believe that we can find conceptual resources in the tradition that support forms of altruism and compassion while Moeller 2009 characterizes Daoist ethics as a kind of “moral foolishness” or amorality. Girardot, et al. 2001 addresses environmental concerns in an important volume that brings Daoism into dialogue with contemporary issues of social justice.

• Fraser, Chris. “Wandering the Way: A Eudaimonistic Approach to the Zhuangzi.” Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 13.4 (2014): 541–565.

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  Presents a eudaimonistic interpretation of the Zhuangzi where the mark of a well-lived life is the exercise of “potency” (de 德) in a mode of “wandering” (you 遊). This form of flourishing is not determined by specified ends or goods but more by a distinctive manner of activity and characteristic attitudes. This metaethical stance is also connected to a discussion of skill and reflections on the content of the good life. Available online by subscription.

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• Girardot, Norman J., James Miller, and Liu Xiaogan, eds. Daoism and Ecology: Ways within a Cosmic Landscape. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001.

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  This collection of twenty-seven essays grew out of a conference of the same name at Harvard’s Center for the Study of World Religions in 1998. The essays are grouped into the following sections: “Framing the Issues,” “Ecological Readings of Daoist Texts,” “Daoism and Ecology in a Cultural Context,” “Toward a Daoist Environmental Philosophy,” and “Practical Ecological Concerns in Contemporary Daoism.”

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• Huang, Yong. “The Ethics of Difference in the Zhuangzi.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 78.1 (2010): 65–99.

  DOI: 10.1093/jaarel/lfp082Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Argues for an ethics of difference inspired by the Zhuangzi that is sensitive to the variety of individual differences without falling into relativism. In contrast to the ethics of commonality, most notably represented by Kant, the ethics of difference is not guided by what the agent thinks about her actions but how those affected—the moral recipient—feels about them. Available online by subscription.

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• Kirkland, Russell. “The Roots of Altruism in the Taoist Tradition.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 54.1 (1986): 59–77.

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  Argues against the common misperception that early Daoism was a form of egoism or escapism and suggests, instead, that we can discern traces of altruism in the early tradition and can find robust forms of service to others in the medieval Daoist religion. Available online by subscription.

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• Lai, Karyn. “Ziran and Wuwei in the Daodejing: An Ethical Assessment.” Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 6.4 (2007): 325–337.

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  Suggests that we can view the concepts of ziran 自然 and wuwei 無為 as correlated ethical concepts in the Laozi. Together these two concepts of “self-so-ness” or spontaneity and “non-action” constitute an ethical framework that supports the avoidance of oppressive norms as a response to an individual’s spontaneity. Develops this framework in concert with reflections on notions of interdependent selfhood and responsiveness. Available online by subscription.

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• Lee, Jung H. The Ethical Foundations of Early Daoism: Zhuangzi’s Unique Moral Vision. New York: Palgrave, 2014.

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  Interprets the Zhuangzi in terms of an ethics of attunement to the Way as a guide for normative behavior. Engages contemporary philosophy in discussions of moral action, death, friendship, knowledge, and human rights.

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• Moeller, Hans-Georg. The Moral Fool: A Case for Amorality. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.

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  Identifies the moral philosophy of early Daoists with a theory of “moral foolishness” against the “pathologies” of conventional moral systems. Reflects on contemporary moral issues like the death penalty, war, and civil rights in making the case for amorality. A very provocative discussion.

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• Wong, David. “Taoism and the Problem of Equal Respect.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 11 (1984): 165–183.

  DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6253.1984.tb00297.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Considers the problem of equal worth from a human point of view and suggests that early Daoism urges moral agents negatively to “forget” about morality and suspend our evaluative categories and positively to cultivate a state of compassion or deep love for the well-being of others. Available online by subscription.

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Metaphysics

Although “metaphysics” in the Daoist context may not correspond precisely to the set of questions that have historically animated Western philosophy, we can say generally that Daoist sources engage in reflection on the ultimate nature of reality. The most explicit metaphysical discussions in Daoist sources, naturally, revolve around the nature of the Dao 道 and its presence and accessibility in the human world. Daoist sources also speak to concerns in regard to the beginnings of the cosmos (cosmogony), the patterns that seem to structure the world (cosmology), and the nature of existence (ontology). Zhu 1998 provides an accessible introduction to the history of Chinese metaphysics as well as an in-depth examination of some of the key metaphysical concepts in the Laozi. Ziporyn 2012 contrasts the metaphysical tradition of Western philosophy with early Chinese thought and argues that the notions of “sameness” and “difference” are fundamentally different in each tradition. In the Chinese tradition, things are neither the “same” nor “different” per se but are “ontologically negotiable,” a line of thinking that he traces to the concept of coherence (li 理). Roth 2012–2013 examines the same concept of li but understands it as “pattern” in early Daoist cosmology and connects this understanding of natural patterns with methods of inner cultivation. Influenced by Roth’s work, Michael 2005 also sees a connection between cosmological views of the “pristine Dao” with soteriological goals in the Daoist tradition. Giles 2013 argues against conventional interpretations of the Laozi that read it as a mystical text and instead suggests that we can think of the central ideas of the text as referring to a metaphysics of awareness.

• Giles, James. “The Metaphysics of Awareness in the Philosophy of Laozi.” International Philosophical Quarterly 53.4 (2013): 435–451.

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  Argues against conventional readings of the Laozi that tend to characterize the text as a piece of mysticism or cosmology and instead argues that three central ideas—the Way, return, and non-action—can all be read as referring to properties of awareness, a metaphysics of awareness. Available online by subscription.

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• Michael, Thomas. The Pristine Dao: Metaphysics in Early Daoist Discourse. Albany: State University of New York, 2005.

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  Presents a metaphysics of early Daoism in terms of cosmogony, cosmology, ontology, and soteriology. The argument is guided by the metaphor of the “pristine Dao” and how this metaphysical notion (cosmology) informs human religious salvation (soteriology).

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• Roth, Harold D. “The Classical Daoist Concept of Li (Pattern) and Early Chinese Cosmology.” Early China 35–36 (2012–2013): 157–184.

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  Examines the origins and development of the concept of li 理 (pattern) in early Chinese cosmology, particularly in regard to how the natural metaphor of li came to represent the notion of natural patterns or structures in early Daoist thought. Connects this understanding of li with early Daoist methods of inner cultivation. Available online by subscription.

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• Zhu, Bokun. “Daoist Patterns of Thought and the Tradition of Chinese Metaphysics.” Contemporary Chinese Thought 29.3 (1998): 13–71.

  DOI: 10.2753/CSP1097-1467290313Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An introduction to the history of metaphysical thought in Chinese philosophy with a particular focus on the Laozi in regard to concepts of being/non-being, the Dao, and spontaneity. Available online by subscription.

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• Ziporyn, Brook. Ironies of Oneness and Difference: Coherence in Early Chinese Thought: Prolegomena to the Study of Li. Albany: State University of New York, 2012.

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  Argues that the meaning of “sameness” and “difference” in the Chinese philosophical context departs significantly from Western conceptions. According to the author, these differences in ontological orientation can be traced to the concept of li 理 translated as “coherence.” Things are neither the “same” nor “different” per se but are “ontologically negotiable,” a far cry from the language of essences and universals. Includes extended discussions of the Laozi and Zhuangzi as “ironic” responses to the concept of coherence.

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Social and Political Philosophy

Ideas about the nature of the polis and the relationship between the individual and the state have been a part of Daoism since the beginning of the tradition. The majority of works on Daoist social and political philosophy are devoted to either the Laozi or syncretist Daoist works like the Huainanzi, but Van Norden 2016 offers a rare reflection on the political commitments of Zhuangzi in the “Inner Chapters” and suggests that we can read him as a kind of Rortian ironist without any commitments to final vocabularies, even to ones that might support political liberalism. Conversely, Zhang 2013 believes that texts like the Zhuangzi and Laozi support the notion of human dignity based in individual freedom. Zhang 2012 analyzes the ethics of war in the Laozi and makes the case that the concept of “naturalness” informs the authors’ positions on jus ad bellum, including how conflict can be prevented through spontaneity. Ames 1983; Duperon 2015; and Major, et al. 2010 all discuss the social and political philosophy of the Han Daoist text Huainanzi, particularly in regard to the arts of rulership. Ames 1983 provides a translation of chapter 9 while Major, et al. 2010 includes a complete translation.

• Ames, Roger T. The Art of Rulership: A Study in Ancient Chinese Political Thought. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1983.

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  A detailed study of chapter 9 (“The Art of Rulership”) of the Huainanzi. The volume traces the evolution of five concepts—non-action, strategic advantage, penal law, utilizing the people, and benefiting the people—in early Chinese political philosophy as the intellectual background to their development in the Huainanzi. Highlights how the authors of the Huainanzi at the court of Liu An were animated by desires to combine differing political philosophies into a new synthesis. Includes a translation of chapter 9.

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• Duperon, Matthew L. “The Role of qing 情 in the Huainanzi’s Ethics.” Early China 38 (2015): 79–107.

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  Analyzes the semantic range of the term qing 情 in the Huainanzi as a way of examining its normative views on ideal moral action and sagehood, particularly in regard to the most effective way of governing an empire. Available online by subscription.

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• Major, John S., Sarah Queen, Andrew S. Meyer, and Harold D. Roth. The Huainanzi: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Government in Early Han China, by Liu An, King of Huainan. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.

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  The first complete English translation of the Huainanzi. Includes a general introduction, introductory essays for each chapter, and appendices for glossaries of key terms, a textual history of the Huainanzi, and an extensive bibliography. The introduction and chapter essays bring into relief the connection between spiritual self-perfection and effective rulership.

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• Van Norden, Bryan. “Zhuangzi’s Ironic Detachment and Political Commitment.” Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 15.1 (2016): 1–17.

  DOI: 10.1007/s11712-015-9471-9Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Describes the Zhuangzi of the “Inner Chapters” as a Rortian ironist without any commitments to final vocabularies. According to the author, Zhuangzi’s irony cannot support a political pluralism since all positions, including liberal ones, are undermined. Available online by subscription.

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• Zhang, Ellen Y. “Weapons Are Nothing but Ominous Instruments: The Daodejing’s View on War and Peace.” Journal of Religious Ethics 40.3 (2012): 473–502.

  DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9795.2012.00532.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Discusses the Laozi’s views on war and peace through an examination of the concept of “naturalness,” the notion of war as a disruption to natural patterns, questions of jus ad bellum, and the prevention of war through spontaneity. Available online by subscription.

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• Zhang, Qianfan. “Human Dignity in Classical Chinese Philosophy: The Daoist Perspective.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 40.3–4 (2013): 493–510.

  DOI: 10.1111/1540-6253.12047Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Presents a conception of human dignity in the Laozi and Zhuangzi that is based in the idea of individual human freedom, the kind of freedom that is frustrated by the machinations of an oppressive state. Compares Daoist notions to Confucian and Mohist conceptions. Available online by subscription.

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Comparative Studies

One of the recent developments in global philosophy has been the emergence of the sub-discipline of comparative philosophy. Although there are outstanding questions in regard to the possibility of comparative work and the limits of commensurability among rival traditions, sinologists and scholars of Chinese philosophy have engaged Western thinkers as a way of bringing into relief the philosophical assumptions of both Western and Daoist sources and possibly advancing the debate. Yu 2015 is an outstanding example of how a comparative study between Heraclitus and Laozi can actually add complexity and nuance to discussions of the putative differences between Western and Chinese metaphysics. Behuniak 2010, Carr and Ivanhoe 2000, and Kjellberg 1991 illustrate how Western thinkers like Dewey, Sextus Empiricus, and Kierkegaard can help frame issues in the study of Daoist philosophy in mutually illuminating ways. Wong 2006 compares rival notions detachment in three traditions—Buddhism, Stoicism, and Daoism—in making the argument that detachment as resilience, the kind of detachment exhibited in the Zhuangzi, should be normative for moral agents. In some ways, Wong’s study could be considered an example of Daoist constructive philosophy. Clarke 2000 examines the legacy of Daoism in the West, from the work of early missionaries to its contemporary presence in popular culture and New Age philosophies.

• Behuniak, James, Jr. “John Dewey and the Virtue of Cook Ding’s Dao.” Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 9.2 (2010): 161–174.

  DOI: 10.1007/s11712-010-9159-0Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Argues against those who discern no moral dimension to the dao of Zhuangzi and, instead, suggests that there is indeed a moral dimension to Zhuangzi’s dao that echoes John Dewey’s idea of educational method. This educational method is brought into relief by a discussion of Cook Ding’s “dao-learning” and how this entails virtues like humility and reverence. Available online by subscription.

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• Carr, Karen L., and Philip J. Ivanhoe. The Sense of Anti-Rationalism: The Religious Thought of Zhuagzi and Kierkegaard. New York: Seven Bridges, 2000.

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  A comparative study of Zhuangzi and Kierkegaard that presents both thinkers as endorsing a form of anti-rationalism that informs each thinker’s concept of self-cultivation in the context of religious salvation. Also includes reflections on the nature of religious studies and the virtues of comparative philosophy.

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• Clarke, J. J. The Tao of the West: Western Transformations of Taoist Thought. New York: Routledge, 2000.

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  An historical study of the West’s encounter with Daoism from the work of early missionaries to contemporary movements in New Age philosophy and environmentalism. The author works as an historian of ideas and not necessarily a sinologist, so this study will be most useful to those interested in the influence of Daoism on Western intellectual life and popular culture.

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• Kjellberg, Paul. “Skepticism, Truth, and the Good Life: A Comparison of Zhuangzi and Sextus Empiricus.” Philosophy East and West 44.1 (1991): 111–133.

  DOI: 10.2307/1399806Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Examines the skepticisms of Zhuangzi and Sextus Empiricus, noting that for both thinkers the purpose of skeptical arguments is not to dismiss knowledge in toto but to induce a state of uncertainty. The author distinguishes the particular motivations that animate each thinker’s skeptical arguments in the context of their different understandings of the good life. Available online by subscription.

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• Wong, David. “The Meaning of Detachment in Daoism, Buddhism, and Stoicism.” Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 5.2 (2006): 207–219.

  DOI: 10.1007/BF02868031Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Discusses competing notions of detachment in Daoism, Buddhism, and Stoicism and argues that detachment as resilience, embodied in the Zhuangzi, is preferable to detachment as extirpation. Available online by subscription.

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• Yu, Jiyuan. “Logos and Dao: Conceptions of Reality in Heraclitus and Laozi.” In Chinese Metaphysics and Its Problems. Edited by Chenyang Li and Franklin Perkins, 105–119. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015.

  DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781316145180.007Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A comparison between Laozi’s understanding of Dao and Heraclitus’s conception of logos as a prolegomena to an examination of the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphysics. Addresses the tendency to overstate the contrasts between Chinese and Western metaphysics.

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