China’s Foreign Policy

by

Zhiqun Zhu

• LAST REVIEWED: 03 December 2019
• LAST MODIFIED: 22 February 2018
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199743292-0025

Introduction

Since the late 20th century, China has been transforming itself from an isolated and backward agrarian society into a modern economic superpower with global interests and responsibilities. To adjust to changing international and domestic conditions, Chinese foreign policy has become more active, pragmatic, and flexible. With continued economic growth China is expected to widen and deepen its global search for energy and other resources and to expand its investment, market, and political clout. China is vigorously projecting soft power and presenting a peaceful image abroad by promoting cultural, educational, sports, tourism, and other exchanges. It has also become more active in global governance. In addition to its roles in existing international institutions, China has played a leadership role in establishing and expanding the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), setting up the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) and the BRICS Development Bank. It has also proposed the “Belt and Road Initiative” to enhance connectivity and cooperation in global development. There is good reason to believe that China’s reemergence to great-power status will be peaceful, as it serves China’s fundamental interests. However, China will be a half-baked “responsible stakeholder” in the 21st century world if it does not help tackle global challenges such as climate change and North Korea. China remains a vulnerable nation surrounded by powerful rivals and potential foes. Understanding China’s foreign policy means fully appreciating these geostrategic conditions. Although its foreign policy has become more sophisticated, China is still learning to become a peaceful, responsible, and respectable great power in the ever-changing world. Indeed, there is much to learn. In addition to traditional diplomatic challenges, China also needs to give more attention to nontraditional security threats such as infectious diseases, economic crises, terrorism, cyber hacking, piracy, transnational crimes, natural disasters, and environmental degradation. China will need to boost cooperation with other countries and international institutions to deal with these challenges.

General Overviews

This article first provides an overview and history of China’s foreign relations; it then addresses a few important aspects of the foreign policy of the People’s Republic of China (PRC): foreign policy theories, foreign and security policymaking, the role of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), domestic–foreign policy nexus, soft power, new diplomacy, US-China relations, relations with other major powers, China and Africa, China in other developing areas, and China’s role in global governance. China follows an independent foreign policy and does not form political or military alliances with other countries. To understand China’s foreign policy in the early 21st century, one needs to know of the so-called century of humiliation in Chinese history—roughly from 1839 to 1949, during which China was humiliated by and suffered from Western and Japanese domination. The “century of humiliation” has a profound impact on China’s foreign relations. The PRC considers itself a country whose historical greatness was eclipsed by Western and Japanese imperialist aggressions. The Chinese public is constantly reminded that only the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was able to “save China” and end the “century of humiliation.” Knowing this history helps one understand why the Chinese are obsessed with issues of sovereignty, national unification, and territorial integrity. As China becomes more powerful, nationalism will continue to grow when foreign countries, especially those former invaders and colonizers, are perceived to be encroaching on China’s sovereignty, such as supporting independence for Taiwan or Tibet. No matter how its foreign policies may change, China considers such “core interests” to be inviolable. To have a general understanding of Chinese foreign policy, one needs to study its objectives, guiding principles, and strategies. The following books offer excellent overviews of Chinese foreign policy—its changes and continuities since 1949 as well as more recent issues and challenges. Lanteigne 2015 serves as a great introductory text on Chinese foreign policy. Rozman 2012 and Kornberg and Faust 2005 focus on the various actors and issues. Sutter 2012 and Wang 2012 highlight international and domestic constraints, whereas Hao, et al. 2009 and Johnston and Ross 2006 underline challenges and directions in Chinese foreign relations. Cheng 2016 offers an overall framework of Chinese foreign policy before examining important bilateral ties and significant challenges, while Qu and Zhong 2018 chronicles China’s diplomatic strategies since the 1980s to cope with complicated and changing international situations. Zhongguo Waijiao (China’s Foreign Affairs) has presented the official Chinese version of major issues in China’s foreign affairs every year since 1987. The website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China (zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiaobu wangzhan “ziliao” lan) is a rich source of useful information on the PRC’s foreign relations and foreign policy.

• Cheng, Joseph Yu-shek. China’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Prospects. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing, 2016.

  DOI: 10.1142/9756Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Cheng examines the Chinese foreign policy framework and traces its evolution since the post-Mao era. The volume also looks at China’s relations with other major powers and its management of various challenges.

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• Hao, Yufan, C. X. George Wei, and Lowell Dittmer, eds. Challenges to Chinese Foreign Policy: Diplomacy, Globalization, and the Next World Power. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009.

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  The contributors argue that the challenges in Chinese foreign policy remain daunting and that some of them come from within. Interesting perspectives of Chinese scholars.

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• Johnston, Alastair Iain, and Robert S. Ross. New Directions in the Study of China’s Foreign Policy. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.

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  The authors draw on a wide range of materials to explore traditional issues, such as China’s use of force since 1959, and new issues, such as China’s response to globalization and the role of domestic opinion in its foreign policy.

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• Kornberg, Judith F., and John R. Faust. China in World Politics: Policies, Processes, Prospects. 2d ed. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2005.

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  Introducing students to the history of China’s foreign policy, the authors outline the political, security, economic, and social issues the country faces in the early 21st century. Each chapter familiarizes the reader with the Chinese framework for analyzing the issues in question.

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• Lanteigne, Marc. Chinese Foreign Policy: An Introduction. 3d ed. New York: Routledge, 2015.

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  Explains how China’s foreign policy is being reconstructed and who (and what) makes policy in the early 21st century. Examines the patterns of engagement with various domestic and international factors. An in-depth look at the key issues, problems, and trends of China’s modern global relations.

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• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China (zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiaobu wangzhan “ziliao” lan 中华人民共和国外交部 网站“资料”栏).

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  Contains rich information on the PRC’s foreign relations, including key speeches by Chinese leaders, a list of statements and communiqués, a list of treaties, diplomatic history, a list of China’s diplomatic allies, and a directory of foreign diplomats in China.

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• Qu, Xing, and Zhong Longbiao. Contemporary China’s Diplomacy. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2018.

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  Written by two of the best Chinese scholars on international relations and foreign policy, this book gives a comprehensive and systematic introduction to the development of China’s diplomatic strategies since the 1980s.

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• Rozman, Gilbert, ed. China’s Foreign Policy: Who Makes It, and How Is It Made? Seoul, South Korea: Asan Institute for Policy Studies, 2012.

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  A collection of essays written by some of the leading China scholars. Topics include China’s leadership, think tanks, national identity, and financial factors in Chinese foreign policymaking as well as China’s foreign policy toward the Korean Peninsula.

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• Sutter, Robert G. Chinese Foreign Relations. 3d ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2012.

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  A nuanced analysis showing that despite its growing power, Beijing is hampered by both domestic and international constraints. China’s leaders exert more influence in world affairs but remain far from dominant.

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• Wang, Zheng. Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.

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  A study of history education in China in the late 20th and early 21st centuries and how it affects China’s worldview and foreign policy.

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• Zhongguo Waijiao (China’s Foreign Affairs 中国外交). Beijing: World Affairs, 1987–.

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  A comprehensive and authoritative account of major issues in Chinese foreign relations in the previous year, compiled by the Policy Planning division of the PRC’s Foreign Ministry.

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History of Foreign Policy of the People’s Republic of China

The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence have guided Chinese foreign policy since the early 1950s. Peace and development have become objectives of China’s foreign policy in the post-Mao era. In the early 1990s the Chinese government launched a new wave of diplomacy, following both yin jin lai (bringing in) and zou chu qu (going out) strategies. China’s foreign policy objectives remain the same: safeguarding national independence and state sovereignty and creating an international environment favorable to its reform, opening-up, and modernization efforts as well as maintaining world peace and promoting common development. The following books concentrate on the evolution of Chinese foreign policy since the mid-20th century. Womack 2010 and Wills 2010 provide a historical survey of Chinese foreign relations. Mark 2012 and Sutter 2013 are panoramic studies of the foreign relations of the PRC since 1949, whereas Liu 2004 stresses the post–Cold War era. Kissinger 2012 and Qian 2005 highlight some of the most dramatic events in China’s foreign relations. Wang and Tan 2016 is an edited collection of articles by Chinese scholars about China’s foreign affairs in the past sixty years. Xie 2009 closely examines Chinese foreign policy decade by decade from 1949 to the early 21st century, whereas Niu 2013 deals with China’s foreign affairs in the first few years after the PRC’s founding.

• Kissinger, Henry. On China. New York: Penguin, 2012.

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  Kissinger illuminates the inner workings of Chinese diplomacy during such pivotal events as the initial encounters between China and European powers, the formation and breakdown of the Sino-Soviet alliance, the Korean War, and President Richard Nixon’s historic trip to Beijing.

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• Liu, Guoli, ed. Chinese Foreign Policy in Transition. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2004.

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  This anthology helps deepen our understanding of the sources, substance, and significance of Chinese foreign policy, with a focus on the post–Cold War era. Contributors include academic specialists, researchers, and journalists.

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• Mark, Chi-kwan. China and the World since 1945: An International History. New York: Routledge, 2012.

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  A concise introduction to China’s foreign relations from 1949 to 2012. Looks at the aims, features, and impact of China’s interactions with the two superpowers, its Asian neighbors, and European and developing countries at political, military, economic, and cultural levels.

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• Niu Jun 牛军. lengzhao yu xinzhongguo waijiao de yuanqi, 1949–1955 (冷战与新中国外交的缘起 1949–1955). Beijing: Social Science Archives, 2013.

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  A complete coverage of major historical events from 1949 to 1955, including the establishment of the PRC, Chinese leaders’ diplomatic activities, and China’s bilateral and multilateral negotiations as well as its interactions with countries of the East and the West.

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• Qian Qichen. Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy. New York: HarperCollins, 2005.

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  Qian shows how global relationships are delicately maintained through rarely seen negotiations. His remembrance covers world-changing events, including the thawing of China’s relationship with the Soviet Union, Nelson Mandela’s visit to China, the normalization of Sino–Indonesian relations, and the handover of Hong Kong.

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• Sutter, Robert G. Foreign Relations of the PRC: The Legacies and Constraints of China’s International Politics since 1949. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.

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  An assessment of the country’s successes and advances as well as the important legacies and constraints that hamper its foreign relations, especially in Asia.

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• Wang, Yizhou, and Xiuying Tan. Sixty Years of China Foreign Affairs. Reading, UK: Paths International, 2016.

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  A collection of essays by Chinese scholars and diplomats, this book chronicles how China has handled challenges in international affairs since 1949.

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• Wills, John E., Jr., ed. Past and Present in China’s Foreign Policy: From “Tribute System” to “Peaceful Rise.” Portland, ME: MerwinAsia, 2010.

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  This volume presents a remarkable variety of approaches to issues of how the past influences policy in the early 21st century. Tribute, empire, asymmetry, China’s peaceful rise, and the Chinese model for developing countries all enter into the discussion.

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• Womack, Brantly, ed. China’s Rise in Historical Perspective. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010.

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  Contributors explore the internal dynamic of China’s rise since traditional times through the key themes of China’s identity, security, economy, environment, energy, and politics.

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• Xie Yixian 谢益显, ed. zhongguo dangdai waijiaoshi (中国当代外交史), 1949–2009. Beijing: China Youth, 2009.

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  It covers every major period in the PRC’s diplomatic history, including the consolidation of independence after 1949, fighting against both superpowers in the 1950s and 1960s, promoting peace and development in the 1970s and 1980s, integrating into the global system, and pushing for multilateralism in the 1990s and 2000s.

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Theories of Chinese Foreign Policy

No single theory can capture and explain China’s evolving foreign policy. Western and Chinese scholars have attempted to offer their theoretical interpretations. Most of the scholarly works on China approach the question at a structural level by looking at the international system and the systemic impact on China’s foreign policy. Traditional realist theorists define China as a revisionist power eager to address wrongs done to it in history, whereas some cultural and historical analyses attest that China’s strategic culture has been offensive, despite its weak material capability. Liberal and constructivist theorists tend to be more upbeat about China’s external relations. Of particular interest in this section are efforts by some Chinese scholars to theorize policymaking in China. Zhao and Chen 2012, Yan 2011, and Ye 2011 are examples of such extraordinary endeavors. Liu 2016 summarizes recent efforts in promoting foundational research in China and building a Chinese school of foreign policy theory. Ni 2013 and Xin 2012 are fine Chinese-language publications on Chinese international relations theory building by leading Chinese scholars. Robinson and Shambaugh 1994 offers an overview of theory and practice in Chinese foreign policy, whereas Lampton 2001 and Callahan and Barabantseva 2011 theorize Chinese foreign policy in the context of China’s reform and integration into the global system. Feng 2009 and Lu 2000 challenge the conventional Western theories about foreign policymaking by introducing how Chinese culture and China’s informal politics affect efforts to theorize Chinese foreign policy.

• Callahan, William A., and Elena Barabantseva, eds. China Orders the World: Normative Soft Power and Foreign Policy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011.

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  Examination of complex debates concerning the role of China’s historical ideals in shaping its foreign policy. The contributors discuss how China’s imperial past inspires a new generation of Chinese scholars and policymakers and their plans for China’s future.

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• Feng, Huiyun. Chinese Strategic Culture and Foreign Policy Decision-Making: Confucianism, Leadership and War. London: Routledge, 2009.

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  Feng traces the historical roots of Chinese strategic culture and its links to the decision making of six key Chinese leaders via their belief systems.

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• Lampton, David M., ed. The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, 1978–2000. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.

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  The author examines the forces reshaping Chinese foreign and national security policymaking institutions and processes: bureaucratic politics and evolving organizations, changing elite views and skills, an altered domestic agenda; increasingly diverse social forces and public opinion, etc.

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• Liu Ming 刘鸣. Zhongguo guoji guanxi yu waijiao lilun qianyan: Tansuo yu fazhan (中国国际关系与外交理论前沿:探索与发展). Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Publisher, 2016.

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  A survey of foundational research on Chinese foreign policy in China and a summary of recent efforts to construct a Chinese school or Chinese theory on foreign policy.

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• Lu Ning. The Dynamics of Foreign-Policy Decisionmaking in China. 2d ed. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000.

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  Lu reveals the inner workings of the Chinese Foreign Ministry, introduces Chinese-language sources, and presents a series of case studies that challenge existing Western theoretical analysis of Chinese policymaking.

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• Ni Shixiong 倪世雄. guoji guanxi lilun tansuo wenji (国际关系理论探索文集). Shanghai, China: Fudan University Press, 2013.

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  An exploration of the development of Chinese international relations theories based on a thorough examination of Western international relations theories and their practice in China.

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• Robinson, Thomas W., and David Shambaugh, eds. Chinese Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

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  A review of China’s desire to ensure its security and to regain freedom of initiative in its foreign relations as the country searches for a redefined role in the multipolar world order.

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• Xin Yishan 辛一山. zhongguoshi guojiguanxi lilun (中国式国际关系理论). Beijing: Current Affairs, 2012.

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  A critique of major Western international relations theories. Using case studies and following the constructivist approach, the author argues that the concepts of peace and morality are crucial for a nation’s development.

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• Yan Xuetong. Ancient Chinese Thought, Modern Chinese Power. Edited by Daniel A. Bell and Sun Zhe. Translated by Edmund Ryden. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.

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  Yan studies the lessons of ancient Chinese political thought and the development of a “Beijing consensus” in international relations. He asserts that political leadership is the key to national power and that morality is an essential part of political leadership.

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• Ye Zicheng. Inside China’s Grand Strategy: The Perspective from the People’s Republic. Edited and translated by Steven I. Levine and Guoli Liu. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2011.

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  Ye analyzes China’s interactions with other world powers and neighboring countries and compares China’s global ascension with the historical experiences of rising European superpowers, giving an insider look at China’s growing global clout.

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• Zhao, Jinjun, and Zhirui Chen, eds. Participation and Interaction: The Theory and Practice of China’s Diplomacy. Hackensack, NJ: World Century, 2012.

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  Insightful theoretical perspectives on China’s diplomacy and the international system written by outstanding Chinese scholars.

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Foreign and Security Policymaking

Contrary to the common misperception that the Chinese state is monolithically controlled by the Communist Party, China has become an increasingly diverse and dynamic society, in which many players are competing for influence in national policy. Although the Leading Small Group on Foreign Affairs has the final say, a growing number of players—from high-ranking government officials and military officers to think tank scholars and researchers; from businesspeople to media; from large, state-owned companies to Internet users—are increasingly involved in China’s foreign policymaking. Various government departments and offices compete for power and influence in foreign affairs. The Foreign Ministry is perceived as just one of the government agencies and not necessarily a very powerful one. Other key government agencies, such as the CCP Central Committee’s International Department, the People’s Bank of China, and the Ministry of Commerce, are also active in dealing with political, financial, and economic relations with other countries. The CCP’s Policy Research Office, the National Development and Reform Commission, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), and the newly established National Security Committee are some of the other powerful official actors vying to influence top leadership’s decisions. Ross 2009 is an excellent introduction to security policymaking in China. Sun 2013 complements the study by focusing on the three security policymaking models. Hao and Lin 2005 and Zhu 2012 discuss the complexity in foreign and security policymaking by highlighting nongovernmental players, such as interest groups and think tanks. Harris 2014 examines both domestic and international factors that shape China’s policymaking. Kastner and Saunders 2012 asks a challenging question: Is China a status quo power or revisionist power, based on its foreign policy behavior? Finally, Bush 2013 reminds readers that the Taiwan issue remains a key security challenge in China’s foreign policy.

• Bush, Richard C. Uncharted Strait: The Future of China-Taiwan Relations. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2013.

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  The Taiwan Strait is uncharted water, with China fearing the island’s permanent separation and Taiwan fearing subordination to an authoritarian regime.

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• Hao, Yufan, and Lin Su, eds. China’s Foreign Policy Making: Societal Force and Chinese American Policy. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.

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  Examination of various domestic factors and their increasing impact on China’s policy toward the United States.

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• Harris, Stuart. China’s Foreign Policy. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2014.

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  An analysis of the multiple domestic and international sources of Chinese foreign policy in the context of Chinese culture, history, and national interests as well as its improving economic and military capabilities as well as the patterns of behavior of other countries.

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• Jakobson, Linda, and Dean Knox. New Foreign Policy Actors in China. Institute Policy Paper 26. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research, 2010.

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  In addition to the official foreign policy actors, the authors note that other actors are playing an increasingly influential role, such as the business sector, local governments, research institutions and academia, the media, and netizens. Available online by subscription.

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• Kastner, Scott L., and Phillip C. Saunders. “Is China a Status Quo or Revisionist State? Leadership Travel as an Empirical Indicator of Foreign Policy Priorities.” International Studies Quarterly 56.1 (2012): 163–177.

  DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00697.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Where Chinese leaders choose to travel can offer insights into whether China’s behavior is more consistent with that of a revisionist or status quo state and into China’s broader diplomatic priorities. The authors analyze the correlates of travel abroad by top Chinese leaders from 1998 to 2008 and conclude that China is more a status quo power.

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• Ross, Robert S. Chinese Security Policy: Structure, Power and Politics. London: Routledge, 2009.

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  The work integrates the realist literature with key issues in Chinese foreign policy and investigates China’s strategic vulnerability, which has compelled Beijing to seek cooperation with the United States.

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• Sun, Yun. Chinese National Security Decision-Making: Processes and Challenges. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2013.

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  This paper attends to three processes of China’s national security decision making: the decision making at the top level, the policy coordination process conducted through the National Security Leading Small Group (NSLSG), and the informational process for national security decision making.

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• Zhu, Xuefeng. The Rise of Think Tanks in China. London: Routledge, 2012.

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  The book, with comparative case studies and data from nationwide surveys, provides a comprehensive picture of think tanks in the country’s political system.

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The People’s Liberation Army and Foreign Policy

China has evolved from a nation with local and regional security interests to a major economic and political power with global interests, investments, and political commitments. It now requires a military that can project itself around the world to protect its interests. The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) is a major pillar of Chinese politics. The PLA plays a crucial role in both domestic and foreign affairs. Blasko 2012, Fisher 2008, Yoshihara and Holmes 2010, and Wortzel 2013 look at the latest developments of the PLA and how it affects China’s foreign relations. Karmel 2000 points out the weaknesses of the PLA, whereas Kamphausen, et al. 2010; Scobell 2003; and Howarth 2006 examine its capabilities, especially those of its navy (People’s Liberation Army Navy [PLAN]) as China plans to project its power beyond its borders. Scobell, et al. 2015 discusses how the PLA has expanded its overseas missions as China’s international interests grow.

• Blasko, Dennis J. The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century. New York: Routledge, 2012.

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  Written by a retired professional military officer, this text uses firsthand observation of the Chinese military and three decades of military experience to weave many disparate threads from official Chinese statements, documents, and media reports into an integrated whole.

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• Fisher, Richard D., Jr. China’s Military Modernization: Building for Regional and Global Reach. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2008.

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  The author shows how the PLA remains critical to the existence of the Chinese government and looks at China’s political and military actions designed to protect its expanded strategic interests.

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• Howarth, Peter. China’s Rising Sea Power: The PLA Navy’s Submarine Challenge. London: Routledge, 2006.

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  Howarth offers answers to a plethora of questions, such as: Why does China place so much emphasis on its navy? What is the level of training of the PLAN’s submarine crews? Are US carriers truly vulnerable to Chinese submarines? The author also explains why Taiwan is so critical to China’s national security.

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• Kamphausen, Roy, David Lai, and Andrew Scobell, eds. The PLA at Home and Abroad: Assessing the Operational Capabilities of China’s Military. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, 2010.

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  The chapters illustrate that (1) Chinese and PLA leaders have a strong sense of mission, (2) the PLA is committed to continuing the transformation in military affairs with Chinese characteristics, (3) the PLA is eager to learn from the US military, and (4) the PLA has made progress in its transformation and operational capabilities.

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• Karmel, Solomon M. China and the People’s Liberation Army: Great Power or Struggling Developing State? Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.

  DOI: 10.1007/978-1-349-62319-8Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The book follows established methods of military analysis to demonstrate that China’s greatest threat to world peace is its poorly managed military bureaucracy.

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• Scobell, Andrew. China’s Use of Military Force: Beyond the Great Wall and the Long March. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

  DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511510502Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A study of Chinese use of military force abroad, as in Korea (1950), Vietnam (1979), and the Taiwan Strait (1995–1996), and domestically, as during the Cultural Revolution and in the 1989 military crackdown in Tiananmen Square.

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• Scobell, Andrew, Arthur Ding, Phillip Saunders, and Scott Harold, eds. The People’s Liberation Army and Contingency Planning in China. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 2015.

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  The edited book examines how China’s rapidly expanding international interests are creating demands for the PLA to conduct new missions ranging from protecting Chinese shipping from Somali pirates to evacuating citizens from Libya.

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• Wortzel, Larry M. The Dragon Extends Its Reach: Chinese Military Power Goes Global. Washington, DC: Potomac, 2013.

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  Wortzel presents a clear picture of the PLA’s modernization effort as it expands into space and cyberspace and as it integrates operations into the traditional domains of war.

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• Yoshihara, Toshi, and James R. Holmes. Red Star over the Pacific: China’s Rise and the Challenge to U.S. Maritime Strategy. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2010.

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  The authors assess how the rise of Chinese sea power will affect US maritime strategy in Asia and argue that China is laying the groundwork for a sustained challenge to American primacy in maritime Asia.

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The Domestic–Foreign Policy Nexus

China’s foreign policy is increasingly constrained by both domestic and international factors. The range of participants in China’s decision-making process has widened, with different societal actors playing an increasingly important role in the Chinese policymaking process. A major foreign policy challenge for China is to balance two seemingly conflicting objectives: to build a reputation as a responsible, principled great power that will be a force for peace rather than a regional bully and to satisfy demands from the Chinese public that China begin to act like a strong country and stand up more forcefully for China’s interests. As China’s political and economic influence in the world is rapidly increasing, it is essential to understand how China’s domestic politics affects its foreign political and economic policy. Whereas mainstream literature on international relations suggests that China’s foreign policy is primarily determined by individual leaders such as Mao Zedong or Deng Xiaoping and external factors such as the international system and policies of other powers, the fact is that domestic factors profoundly shape China’s foreign policy in the reform era. Lai 2010 and Shambaugh 2011 study domestic sources of China’s decision making. Shirk 2007 and Lampton 2008 highlight domestic constraints on China’s conduct of foreign policy. Wang 2011; Wang, et al. 2012; Clegg 2009; and Swaine and Tellis 2000 focus on China’s search for a grand strategy as it becomes more confident in international affairs as a result of domestic growth. Turcsányi 2018 focuses on the domestic sources of Chinese policies in the South China Sea.

• Clegg, Jenny. China’s Global Strategy: Toward a Multipolar World. New York: Pluto, 2009.

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  Clegg shows that China is taking a multilateral approach, offering real assistance to developing countries and helping build the institutions required to run a multipolar world. She argues that China’s international consensus-building strategy could lead to a more peaceful and equitable world.

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• Lai, Hongyi. The Domestic Sources of China’s Foreign Policy: Regimes, Leadership, Priorities and Process. New York: Routledge, 2010.

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  A discussion of how China’s foreign policy is driven by the preservation of political and economic regimes, the political survival of the top leader, the top leader’s vision for and skill in managing external affairs, the top leader’s policy priorities, dramatic events, and the process of policymaking.

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• Lampton, David M. The Three Faces of Chinese Power: Might, Money, and Minds. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.

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  Lampton Investigates the military, economic, and intellectual dimensions of China’s growing influence.

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• Shambaugh, David. “Coping with a Conflicted China.” Washington Quarterly 34.1 (2011): 7–27.

  DOI: 10.1080/0163660X.2011.537974Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Shambaugh suggests that although there seems to be domestic agreement in the early 21st century, China remains a deeply conflicted rising power with a series of competing international identities.

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• Shirk, Susan L. China: Fragile Superpower. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

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  Shirk argues the real danger of Chinese politics lies in the deep insecurity of its leaders.

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• Swaine, Michael D., and Ashley J. Tellis. Interpreting China’s Grand Strategy: Past, Present, and Future. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2000.

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  Identification and analysis of major factors determining China’s grand strategy, past, present, and future.

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• Turcsányi, Richard Q. Chinese Assertiveness in the South China Sea: Power Sources, Domestic Politics, and Reactive Foreign Policy. New York: Springer, 2018.

  DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-67648-7Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A detailed account of the events in the South China Sea and power dynamics in the region. A study of the driving forces, both domestic and international, behind China’s assertive foreign policy.

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• Wang, Jisi. “China’s Search for a Grand Strategy: A Rising Great Power Finds Its Way.” Foreign Affairs 90.2 (2011): 68–79.

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  Wang points out that with China’s clout growing, the international community needs to better understand China’s strategic thinking.

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• Wang, Jisi, Fang Gang, Jin Canrong, et al. China at the Crossroads: Sustainability, Economy, Security and Critical Issues for the 21st Century. San Francisco: Long River, 2012.

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  A collection of essays by leading Chinese scholars on the reforms that are taking place in China and the types of responses needed by China to shift course and manage continued development, while addressing rising problems.

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The New Diplomacy

The diplomacy of the PRC can be divided into two periods. In the first thirty years (1949–1978) the focus of China’s diplomatic tasks was to oppose the threat from the two superpowers, consolidate national independence, and safeguard sovereignty and territorial integrity. Since 1978 China has reoriented its diplomacy to create an external environment conducive to its domestic economic development in the midst of the changing international situation. In the early 1980s, China’s role in global affairs, beyond its immediate East Asian periphery, was decidedly minor, and it had little geostrategic power. In the early 21st century, however, China’s expanding economic power has allowed it to extend its reach virtually everywhere. This second wave of diplomacy is driven by China’s domestic need for energy and other resources for continued growth as well as its intention to project the image of a peaceful and responsible power. This diplomacy has brought about many development opportunities for other countries; it has also created concerns and challenges in some quarters. Shambaugh 2013 and Zhu 2013 offer a comprehensive survey of this wave of diplomacy around the world, whereas Gill 2010 focuses on the security dimension. Kerr, et al. 2008 explores whether China’s diplomacy is just a foreign policy instrument or a natural outcome of a learning process as China becomes more integrated into the international community. Johnston 2013 challenges the view that China’s assertiveness represents a change and notes that one can find similar behaviors in the past, whereas Nathan and Scobell 2012 underlines the security challenges China faces from different fronts. Wang 2011 explains how and why China is moving from being passive to being more active in its foreign policy. Ellis 2009 and Karrar 2009 are careful studies of China’s diplomacy in selected global regions. Rolland 2017 is one of the first studies of China’s Belt and Road initiative unveiled by President Xi Jinping in 2013. Chan 2018 assesses the implications of China’s new diplomacy for the global political economy.

• Chan, Gerald. Understanding China’s New Diplomacy: Silk Roads and Bullet Trains. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2018.

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  The book argues that a new developmental path called “geo-developmentalism” is in the making: China plays a leading role in promoting growth and building connections across Eurasia and beyond.

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• Ellis, R. Evan. China in Latin America: The Whats and Wherefores. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2009.

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  A comprehensive look at the character and impact of the developing PRC–Latin America relationship. The author examines how the relationship has taken on distinct characteristics in various instances, such as the role of oil and other resources, the Taiwan issue, and the unique case of Cuba.

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• Gill, Bates. Rising Star: China’s New Security Diplomacy. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2010.

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  A coherent framework for understanding China’s security diplomacy since the mid-1990s, with focus on Chinese policy in three areas: regional security mechanisms, nonproliferation and arms control, and questions of sovereignty and intervention.

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• Johnston, Alastair Iain. “How New and Assertive Is China’s New Assertiveness?” International Security 37.4 (2013): 7–48.

  DOI: 10.1162/ISEC_a_00115Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article argues that the assertiveness meme underestimates the degree of assertiveness in certain policies in the past and overestimates the amount of change in China’s diplomacy in 2010 and after.

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• Karrar, Hasan H. The New Silk Road Diplomacy: China’s Central Asian Foreign Policy since the Cold War. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2009.

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  An overview of China’s cooperation with Russia and the Central Asian republics to stabilize the region, facilitate commerce, and build an energy infrastructure to import the region’s oil.

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• Kerr, Pauline, Stuart Harris, and Qin Yaqing, eds. China’s “New” Diplomacy: Tactical or Fundamental Change? New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

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  The authors highlight the view that diplomacy is both an instrument of foreign policy and a learning and socializing process that fosters positive and negative change. They assert that there is little to suggest that China’s changed diplomacy has a tactical, revisionist agenda.

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• Nathan, Andrew J., and Andrew Scobell. China’s Search for Security. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.

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  An analysis of China’s security concerns on four fronts: at home, with its immediate neighbors, in surrounding regional systems, and in the world beyond Asia.

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• Rolland, Nadège. China’s Eurasian Century? Political and Strategic Implications of the Belt and Road Initiative. Seattle and Washington, DC: National Bureau of Asian Research, 2017.

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  Examination of the origins, drivers, and various components of the Belt and Road Initiative. It argues that the new initiative has economic and geopolitical purposes and serves the Chinese leadership’s vision of a risen China sitting at the heart of a Sinocentric regional order.

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• Shambaugh, David. China Goes Global: The Partial Power. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

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  A sweeping account of China’s growing prominence on the international stage. Shambaugh offers an enlightening look into the manifestations of China’s global presence: its extensive commercial footprint; its growing military power; its increasing cultural influence, or soft power; its diplomatic activity; and its prominence in global governance institutions.

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• Wang Yizhou 王逸舟. chuangzhaoxing jieru: zhongguo waijiao xinquxiang (创造性介入:中国外交新取向). Beijing: Peking University Press, 2011.

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  In the early 21st century, China is gradually shifting away from “keeping a low profile,” as Deng Xiaoping admonished, to exercising its increased power and becoming a more active and responsible player in international affairs. Using case studies, the book suggests that China is becoming more creative in its diplomacy.

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• Zhu, Zhiqun. China’s New Diplomacy: Rationale, Strategies, and Significance. 2d ed. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2013.

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  An examination and evaluation of Chinese initiatives in the Middle East, Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and the South Pacific since the early 1990s and studies China’s efforts to secure energy and other resources, to expand trade and investment, and to enhance soft power.

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China’s Soft Power

Since the beginning of the 21st century, the Chinese government has given attention to the importance of enhancing its soft power. Chinese leaders recognize the value of soft power in projecting China’s image as a peaceful, reliable, and responsible great power and in reducing misunderstanding of its intentions as well as deflecting concerns about the “China threat.” Soft power has become one of the most frequently used phrases among political leaders, leading academics, and journalists in China. The idea of soft power figures significantly in the story of China’s reemergence as a global power. Likewise, China’s soft power has attracted considerable attention in the early 21st century. Kurlantzick 2008 is perhaps the first book to examine the significance of soft power in China’s foreign relations. Lai and Lu 2012, Wang 2011, Li 2009, and Hartig 2017 are excellent studies of how soft-power promotion has become a major Chinese foreign policy objective. Ding 2008 attempts to find the theoretical and empirical connection between soft power and China’s rise. King 2013, Barr 2011, and Cardenal and Araújo 2013 stress the impact of China’s growing influence in different parts of the world.

• Barr, Michael. Who’s Afraid of China? The Challenge of Chinese Soft Power. London: Zed, 2011.

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  The rise of China as an alternative model to Western liberalism has created a fear that developing countries will stray from Western values. Barr argues that the rise of China presents a fundamental challenge to ideas about modernity, history, and international relations.

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• Cardenal, Juan Pablo, and Heriberto Araújo. China’s Silent Army: The Pioneers, Traders, Fixers and Workers Who Are Remaking the World in Beijing’s Image. Translated by Catherine Mansfield. New York: Crown, 2013.

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  A study of the unprecedented growth of China’s economic investment in the developing world and its impact at the local level with a focus on the role of China’s silent army—ordinary Chinese in the juggernaut that is “China Inc.”

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• Ding, Sheng. The Dragon’s Hidden Wings: How China Rises with Its Soft Power. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2008.

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  The main questions addressed are: What are the theoretical and empirical connections between the soft-power concept and the rise of China? What are China’s own soft-power resources? How has Beijing used soft power to become a major player in the world? What opportunities and challenges does the use of soft power present to China?

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• Hartig, Falk. Chinese Public Diplomacy: The Rise of the Confucius Institute. London: Routledge, 2017.

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  A study of the Confucius Institute as a tool of public diplomacy to promote soft power in China’s foreign policy, with case studies of Confucius Institutes in different parts of the world.

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• King, Kenneth. China’s Aid and Soft Power in Africa: The Case of Education and Training. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell and Brewer, 2013.

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  King offers hard evidence from Ethiopia, South Africa, and Kenya of the dramatic growth of China’s soft power and increasing impact in capacity building.

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• Kurlantzick, Joshua. Charm Offensive: How China’s Soft Power Is Transforming the World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.

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  Kurlantzick reveals how China has wooed the world with a “charm offensive” that has largely escaped the attention of American policymakers and how Beijing’s changed diplomacy has altered the political landscape in Southeast Asia and far beyond.

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• Lai, Hongyi, and Yiyi Lu, eds. China’s Soft Power and International Relations. London: Routledge, 2012.

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  This volume covers the main areas in which China has made noticeable advances in its appeal and influence, including foreign policy discourse, international communication, cultural diplomacy, and foreign assistance.

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• Li, Mingjiang, ed. Soft Power: China’s Emerging Strategy in International Politics. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009.

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  An analysis of domestic and international views of China’s soft power, its main strengths and weaknesses, and its application in China’s international politics.

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• Wang, Jian. Soft Power in China: Public Diplomacy through Communication. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

  DOI: 10.1057/9780230116375Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The book furnishes answers to a number of questions about China’s pursuit of soft power through international communication, such as: What kinds of images does China want to project? What is the role of the government vis-à-vis that of other institutional and social actors? What kinds of tensions and pressures has China experienced?

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US-China Relations

Among all the external factors that affect China’s foreign policy, the United States is obviously the most significant. Since the end of the Cold War, the lone superpower and the emerging global power have developed a highly interdependent relationship. However, the two sides have remained suspicious strategically. Although China has expressed no intention of excluding the United States from Asia, it is concerned about renewed US commitments in Asia. In the early 21st century the United States has reached out to India and Vietnam, both of which remain uncomfortable living in the shadow of a giant neighbor. The United States has also beefed up its alliances with Japan, South Korea, and Australia. Some in China feel that the United States has not abandoned its Cold War–style containment policy toward China. Just as China continues to grow in global importance, so, too, will the US-China relationship, which will continue to be marked by cooperation and competition. Cohen 2010, Tao and He 2009, and Wang 2013 are historical surveys of US-China relations from American and Chinese scholars, respectively. Sutter 2013 examines the domestic and international factors that have affected the relationship, whereas Zhu 2006 attempts to develop a working theory based on power transition to explain cooperation and conflict between the United States and China. Lampton 2001 is the most comprehensive study of the US-China relationship in the 1990s. Shambaugh 2013 tackles the complexity of the relationship from multiple dimensions, whereas Friedberg 2011 provides a somber and perhaps alarming view of what will happen to the United States if it does not counter China’s growing power. Moosa 2012 aims to dispel some of the myths and misunderstandings about trade between the two sides. Pomfret 2016 and Chang 2015 are remarkable historical accounts of the two-centuries-old relationship, while Allison 2017 carries on the power transition research and explores how the bilateral relationship can avoid the “Thucydides’s Trap.” Chan 2017 introduces trust, a key concept in international relations, into the study of Sino-American relations.

• Allison, Graham. Destined for War: Can America and China Escape Thucydides’s Trap? Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017.

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  Out of the sixteen power transitions in the past 500 years, twelve led to war. Today, the seventeenth case looks grim. Unless China is willing to scale back its ambitions or Washington will accommodate China’s rise, a conflict could soon escalate into all-out war.

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• Chan, Steve. Trust and Distrust in Sino-American Relations. Amherst, NY: Cambria, 2017.

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  A systematic framework for analyzing the level of trust between the two countries and examining how ongoing trends and prospective developments may foster or undermine this relationship.

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• Chang, Gordon H. Fateful Ties: A History of America’s Preoccupation with China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015.

  DOI: 10.4159/9780674426115Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Through portraits of entrepreneurs, missionaries, academics, artists, diplomats, and activists, the book demonstrates how ideas about China have long been embedded in America’s conception of itself and its own fate.

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• Cohen, Warren I. America’s Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations. 5th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.

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  From the mercantile interests of the newly independent America to the early-21st-century changing international political economy, Cohen analyzes the concerns and conceptions that have shaped America’s China policy and examines their far-reaching outcomes.

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• Friedberg, Aaron L. A Contest for Supremacy: China, America, and the Struggle for Mastery in Asia. New York: W. W. Norton, 2011.

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  Friedberg argues that America’s leaders are failing to act expeditiously enough to counter China’s growing strength and explains that the ultimate aim of China is to win without fighting, displacing the United States as the leading power in Asia, while avoiding direct confrontation.

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• Lampton, M. David. Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989–2000. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.

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  The processes of globalization have brought America and China increasingly close in the global bed. At the same time, their respective national institutions, interests, and popular perceptions, and the very characters of the two peoples, ensure that the two nations continue to have substantially different dreams.

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• Moosa, Imad. The US-China Trade Dispute: Facts, Figures and Myths. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2012.

  DOI: 10.4337/9781781001554Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Moosa addresses contentious issues, including whether the Chinese currency is undervalued; whether the undervaluation of the yuan, should it exist, is the cause of the US trade deficit with China; and whether Chinese policies are immoral and illegal.

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• Pomfret, John. The Beautiful Country and the Middle Kingdom: America and China, 1776 to the Present. New York: Henry Holt, 2016.

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  Drawing on personal letters, diaries, memoirs, government documents, and contemporary news reports, Pomfret reconstructs the surprising, tragic, and marvelous ways Americans and Chinese have engaged with one another through the centuries.

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• Shambaugh, David, ed. Tangled Titans: The United States and China. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.

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  An in-depth exploration of the historical, domestic, bilateral, regional, global, and future contexts of this complex relationship by a team of top-notch scholars.

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• Sutter, Robert G. U.S.-Chinese Relations: Perilous Past, Pragmatic Present. 2d ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.

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  An examination of the evolution of the relationship and key domestic and international factors that have led to the positive but fragile equilibrium that exists in the early 21st century.

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• Tao Wenzhao 陶文钊 and He Xingqiang 何兴强. Zhongmei guanxishi (中美关系史). Beijing: China Social Sciences, 2009.

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  A complete history of US-Chinese interactions, from the voyage of the Empress of China to Canton in 1784 to the first term of President George W. Bush, highlighting the complexity of the relationship.

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• Wang, Dong. The United States and China: A History from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.

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  An examination of the foundations and character of political, economic, military, social, and cultural relations and shows how these have come to shape domestic and international affairs.

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• Zhu, Zhiqun. US-China Relations in the 21st Century: Power Transition and Peace. London: Routledge, 2006.

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  Using a modified power transition theory, Zhu addresses bilateral relations on international, domestic, societal, and individual levels after 1989. This book discusses whether China and the United States can learn from history and manage a potential power transition peacefully.

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Relations with Other Major Powers

In its “big power” diplomacy, China gives particular attention to Japan, India, Russia, the European Union (EU), and the Korean Peninsula. The rivalry between Japan and China has a long and sometimes brutal history, and they continue to eye each other warily as the balance of power tips toward Beijing. In the early 21st century, China and Russia have made efforts to strengthen bilateral ties and improve cooperation on a number of diplomatic fronts, although historical suspicion and the Russian concern over China’s rapid rise may become obstacles for further ties. Relations between China and EU countries are generally positive, but disputes in trade, human rights, and weapons sanctions continue to exist. The Korean Peninsula is the venue where major powers compete for influence and where China has vital national interests. Bush 2010, Sun 2012, and Lam 2017 are some of the best studies on the difficult Japan-China relationship. Bellacqua 2010 focuses on China-Russia relations, whereas Ross, et al. 2010 examines the China-US-EU triangle. Snyder 2009 is probably the most comprehensive study of China’s relations with the two Koreas. Sidhu and Yuan 2003, Holslag 2010, and Ogden 2017 consider different aspects of the ever-growing but competitive relations between China and India. Fravel 2008 deals with China’s territorial disputes with its neighbors, including Japan, Russia, India, and Vietnam.

• Bellacqua, James, ed. The Future of China-Russia Relations. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2010.

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  A group of international scholars explore the state of the relationship between the two powers and assess the prospects for future cooperation and possible tensions in the new century.

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• Bush, Richard C. The Perils of Proximity: China-Japan Security Relations. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2010.

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  Bush evaluates the chances of armed conflict between China and Japan, throwing into stark relief the dangers it would pose and revealing the steps that could head off such a disastrous turn of events.

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• Fravel, M. Taylor. Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China’s Territorial Disputes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.

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  Fravel contends that since the 1950s China has been more likely to compromise in conflicts with its Asian neighbors and less likely to use force than many scholars and analysts might have surmised.

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• Holslag, Jonathan. China and India: Prospects for Peace. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.

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  Holslag argues that China and India cannot grow without a fierce contest. Despite a period of peace in the 1990s and early 2000s, mutual perceptions have become hostile, and a military game of tit-for-tat promises to diminish prospects for peace.

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• Lam, Peng Er, ed. China-Japan Relations in the 21st Century: Antagonism despite Interdependency. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.

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  Focusing on the power transition in East Asia, the lack of a common enemy in the post–Cold War era, the clash of nationalism, and a lack of trust and shared values between China and Japan, this collection addresses the origins of a troubled bilateral relationship that could challenge stability and prosperity of East Asia.

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• Ogden, Chris. China and India: Asia’s Emergent Great Powers. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2017.

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  Ogden explores the extent to which domestic political and cultural values as well as historical identities and perceptions are central driving forces behind the common status, ambitions and worldviews of China and India.

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• Ross, Robert S., Øystein Tunsjø, and Zhang Tuosheng, eds. US-China-EU-Relations: Managing the New World Order. London: Routledge, 2010.

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  An examination of how a future global order will be developed by the interactions of these leading actors, and how they promote cooperation and manage conflicts on a wide spectrum of issues, including security challenges.

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• Sidhu, Waheguru Pal Singh, and Jing-dong Yuan. China and India: Cooperation or Conflict? Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003.

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  The authors see a trend in Beijing and New Delhi toward a more pragmatic approach to managing differences and broadening common interests.

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• Snyder, Scott. China’s Rise and the Two Koreas: Politics, Economics, Security. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2009.

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  An insightful, expert account of how China’s economic ascension affects the balance of power on the Korean Peninsula and in Northeast Asia. Snyder studies the transformation of China’s relations with both Koreas and assesses the likely consequences of those developments for the United States and Japan.

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• Sun, Jing. Japan and China as Charm Rivals: Soft Power in Regional Diplomacy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012.

  DOI: 10.3998/mpub.3918076Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Instead of adopting a one-size-fits-all approach, the Chinese and the Japanese deploy customized charm campaigns for each target state. Sun evaluates the effectiveness of individual campaigns from the perspective of the target state.

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China and the Developing World

This section covers China’s diplomacy in Africa and other developing regions, such as the Middle East, Latin America, and the South Pacific. The China-Africa relationship has become a hotly debated topic since the late 20th century. The section China and Africa features several books dealing with the history, motivations, strategies, and significance of China’s robust relations with African countries. The section China and Other Developing Regions treats China’s relations with the rest of the developing world.

China and Global Governance

The expanding scope of China’s international activities is one of the latest and most important trends in global affairs. Actively engaged in global governance in both traditional and new securities, China’s global activism is continually changing and has so many dimensions that immediately raises questions about its near-and long-term intentions. Observers have debated whether China would be a status quo power or a revisionist power and whether it would observe the rules and regulations of international institutions and regimes. Rather than simply reassuring others that its rise is peaceful, China has taken proactive steps to reduce possible conflicts. Beijing seeks to shape the emerging global governance order as both nonthreatening to itself and productive in transnational problem solving. Chan, et al. 2012 and Li 2012 are overviews of China’s engagement in global governance in the early 21st century. Kornberg and Faust 2005, Medeiros 2009, and Dellios and Ferguson 2013 look at the process and transition of China’s involvement in global governance, whereas Kavalski 2009, Zeng and Liang 2013, and Chan 2011 consider selected areas of China’s global involvement: regionalization, trade, and health, respectively. Kennedy 2017 suggests that while China is a defender of the status quo in some areas of global governance, it is a reformer in others, and occasionally a revisionist in still other spheres.

• Chan, Lai-Ha. China Engages Global Health Governance: Responsible Stakeholder or System-Transformer? New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

  DOI: 10.1057/9780230116245Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  In scrutinizing China’s evolving global role and its intentions for global governance, Chan argues that China is neither a system defender nor a system transformer of the liberal international order.

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• Chan, Gerald, Pak K. Lee, and Lai-Ha Chan. China Engages Global Governance: A New World Order in the Making? London: Routledge, 2012.

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  A general examination and assessment of whether China is capable of participating in multilateral interactions, if it is willing and able to provide public goods to address global problems, and what impact this would have on global governance.

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• Dellios, Rosita, and R. James Ferguson. China’s Quest for Global Order: From Peaceful Rise to Harmonious World. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013.

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  This book interprets China’s quest for global order from Chinese perspectives and furnishes the relevant philosophical and historical background to engage the reader in the debates.

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• Kavalski, Emilian, ed. China and the Global Politics of Regionalization. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009.

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  A comprehensive and critical assessment of China’s impact on the global politics of regionalization, the book investigates the aspects of the Chinese practice of regionalization that set it apart, and demonstrates China’s transformative potential in international life.

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• Kennedy, Scott, ed. Global Governance and China: The Dragon’s Learning Curve. London: Routledge, 2017.

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  A systematic analysis of China’s growing engagement in global governance institutions over the past three decades. The volume is based on studies of Chinese involvement in a wide range of regimes, including trade, finance, intellectual property rights, foreign aid, and climate change.

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• Kornberg, Judith F., and John R. Faust. China in World Politics: Policies, Processes, Prospects. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2005.

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  The book outlines the political, security, economic, and social issues China faces in the early 21st century. It familiarizes the reader with the Chinese framework for analyzing the issues in question. Alternate policy choices are suggested, along with supporting data for each course of action.

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• Li, Mingjiang, ed. China Joins Global Governance: Cooperation and Contentions. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2012.

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  The contributors cover a broad range of issues, including China’s vision and strategy in global multilateralism; role in global economic/financial/trade governance, policy toward the global environment and international development; and approaches to various global security concerns, such as nuclear disarmament and nonproliferation.

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• Medeiros, Evan S. China’s International Behavior: Activism, Opportunism, and Diversification. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2009.

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  A discussion of two contrasting aspects of Chinese foreign policy: the country’s rise and the corresponding increase in political, strategic, and economic challenges. The work analyzes how China defines its international objectives, how it is pursuing them, and what this means for US economic and security interests.

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• Zeng, Ka, and Wei Liang, eds. China and Global Trade Governance: China’s First Decade in the World Trade Organization. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2013.

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  Through a thorough examination of China’s World Trade Organization (WTO) compliance record and experience in multilateral trade negotiations, this volume seeks to better understand the sources of constraints on China’s behavior in the multilateral trade institution as well as the country’s influence on the efficacy of the WTO.

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