Evidence-Based Public Health Practice

by

Gilbert Ramirez

• LAST REVIEWED: 09 September 2016
• LAST MODIFIED: 23 February 2011
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756797-0127

Introduction

Evidence-based public health (EBPH) practice is the informed use of evidence to guide practice decisions across the range of public health arenas. Because the nature of evidence that is relevant to the health of populations is often fraught with research challenges different from the evidence relevant to the health of individuals, the term “evidence-informed public health practice” might more accurately describe the activity that is reported in this bibliography. Growing out of the evidence-based medicine movement, as well as evidence-based strategies in other disciplines such as education, evidence-based public health practice is at best in its infancy. This bibliography of select works attempts to provide a concise but broad listing of references that would be useful toward the advancement and growth of evidence-based approaches at the public health practice level of operation. That is to say, while advances have been made in improving the quality and reporting of public health research, the translation of research into effective public health practice is a journey in progress. Similarly, there is increasing recognition of the evolution of public health research toward more policy and practice relevance.

Introductory Works

As might be expected, the infancy of evidence-based public health (EBPH) practice is reflected in the scant number of comprehensive treatises. Brownson, et al. 2003 was the first to provide a logical framework for how an evidence-based decision-making approach would operate in public health settings. Heller 2005 provides a concise reading by comparing evidence for population health to that required for individual patients. Trinder and Reynolds 2000 offers a critical appraisal of evidence-based practice across multiple disciplines. Four journal articles are included as suggested supplementary readings. Brownson, et al. 2009 addresses analytical tools that are needed in EBPH. Cid Ruzafa, et al. 1999 and Hernandez 2003 provide Spanish-language overviews of EBPH. A glossary of EBPH terminology is provided in Rychetnik, et al. 2004.

• Brownson, R. C., E. A. Baker, T. L. Leet, and K. N. Gillespie. 2003. Evidence-based public health. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

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  This seminal text provides a framework for enhancing evidence-based practice by offering practical guidance on how to choose, carry out, and evaluate evidence-based programs and policies in public health settings.

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• Brownson, R. C., J. E. Fielding, and C. M. Maylahn. 2009. Evidence-based public health: A fundamental concept for public health practice. Annual Review of Public Health 30:175–201.

  DOI: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.031308.100134Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Calls attention to the concept of EBPH and its need to better integrate evidence with practice. Addresses the analytic tools needed to accelerate the spotlight on EBPH, such as systematic reviews and the challenges of EBPH.

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• Cid Ruzafa, J., F. Rodriguez Artalejo, and J. M. Martin Moreno. 1999. Hacia una salud publica basada en la evidencia? Medicina Clinica 112.Suppl. 1: 106–110.

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  This paper provides an overview of evidence-based public health definition, its aims, and methods to appraise evidence.

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• Heller, R. F. 2005. Evidence for population health. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

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  Proposes the idea of how “evidence for population health” aims to improve the health of communities in an effective and efficient manner compared to how evidence-based medicine focuses only on individual patients.

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• Hernandez, L. J. 2003. Que es la salud publica basada en la evidencia? Revista De Salud Publica (Bogota, Colombia) 5.1: 40–45.

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  This paper defines evidence-based public health and its goals, briefly summarizes two types of evidence, and discusses the relevance of research designs in collections of evidence.

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• Rychetnik, L., P. Hawe, E. Waters, A. Barratt, and M. Frommer. 2004. A glossary for evidence based public health. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 58.7: 538–545.

  DOI: 10.1136/jech.2003.011585Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Defines and explains concepts whose understanding is essential for implementing evidence-based practice in public health. This document is a compilation of published works, analysis, and discussions among researchers, practitioners, and public health students.

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• Trinder, L., and S. Reynolds. 2000. Evidence-based practice: A critical appraisal. Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

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  Discusses the emergence and expansion of evidence-based practice in fields such as medicine, nursing, mental health, education, and social welfare. Also critically appraises the strengths and weaknesses of evidence-based practice and takes a look at the consequences of not basing practice on research.

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History

The history of evidence-based public health (EBPH) is one best described as an evolution following the emergence of evidence-based medicine (EBM). In addition to different health perspectives, population vs. individual patient, the delayed emergence of EBPH compared to EBM reflects a difference in how evidence is typically generated; most population health evidence needs are not as amenable to randomized controlled trials, defined as the gold standard for EBM. Brownson, et al. 1999 offers a six-step approach for decision making, differentiating EBPH as independent from EBM. Jenicek 1997, and Jenicek and Stachenko 2003 provide useful comparisons between EBPH and EBM, and address epidemiological prerequisites for EBPH. Kohatsu, et al. 2004 discusses developments that may support the further advancement of EBPH. Maylahn, et al. 2008 establishes the need to teach EBPH to strengthen epidemiologic competencies among public health professionals in local health departments.

• Brownson, R. C., J. G. Gurney, and G. H. Land. 1999. Evidence-based decision making in public health. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice 5.5: 86–97.

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  This article discusses the relationship between EBM and EBPH; commonly used analytic tools and processes; keys to when public health action is warranted; a strategic six-step approach to more analytic decision making; and summary barriers and opportunities for widespread implementation of EBPH.

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• Jenicek, M. 1997. Epidemiology, evidenced-based medicine, and evidence-based public health. Journal of Epidemiology/Japan Epidemiological Association 7.4: 187–197.

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  Discusses epidemiologic measures applied in EBM and EBPH as well as the emergence, paradigm shift from traditional medicine, and main critiques against EBM. Differentiation of EBPH as a discipline independent from EBM is discussed by drawing analogies in epidemiologic measures in both disciplines.

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• Jenicek, M., and S. Stachenko. 2003. Evidence-based public health, community medicine, preventive care. Medical Science Monitor: International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research 9.2: SR1–SR7.

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  A comparison of definitions and steps of practice for evidence-based medicine and evidence-based public health. Analyzes the epidemiological prerequisites for establishing health programs’ priorities.

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• Kohatsu, N. D., J. G. Robinson, and J. C. Torner. 2004. Evidence-based public health: An evolving concept. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 27.5: 417–421.

  DOI: 10.1016/S0749-3797(04)00196-5Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper reviews the evolution of EBPH from EBM, proposes a new definition for EBPH, and discusses developments that may support its further advancement.

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• Maylahn, C., C. Bohn, M. Hammer, and E. C. Waltz. 2008. Strengthening epidemiologic competencies among local health professionals in New York: Teaching evidence-based public health. Public Health Reports 123. Suppl. 1: 35–43.

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  Discusses the need to teach evidence-based public health to strengthen epidemiologic competencies among public health professionals in local health departments. Demonstrates the use of data and evidence in the decision-making process.

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Reference Works

In most practice situations, public health professionals will look to evidence-based organizations for published reviews for specific population health issues, and will rely on these organizations to provide high-quality, state-of-the-art assessments that can then be translated into practice. Occasionally, public health professionals may have to conduct their own evidence reviews and, in order to do that, will need to be competent in finding the relevant evidence, critically appraising that evidence, and then systematically reviewing and summarizing the evidence that is deemed to be of sufficient quality for decision making. This section provides references for conducting these three activities and that also offer a basis for assessing the quality of published reviews.

Textbooks

Dever 1997 and Gray and Ison 2009 are excellent textbooks for undergraduate or graduate introductory courses in evidence-based practice. Greenhalgh 2001 is a good, basic textbook for conducting reviews. Hoffmann, et al. 2010 is a good text for courses that examine evidence-based practice across different health professions. Petitti 2000 is an excellent introductory textbook for addressing three useful evidence-based analytic tools in one course: meta-analysis, decision analysis, and cost-effectiveness analysis.

• Dever, G. E. A. 1997. Improving outcomes in public health practice: Strategy and methods. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.

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  Applies the quantitative, analytical methods of quality measurement and improvement to the public health setting. Offers tools and methods to improve quality and outcome measurement in public health practice.

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• Gray, J. A. M., and E. Ison. 2009. Evidence-based healthcare and public health: How to make decisions about health services and public health. 3d ed. Edinburgh and New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier.

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  A well-written guide geared toward health-care, medical, and nurse managers on evidence-based decision making. The emphasis is on decision making that is effective and of high quality.

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• Greenhalgh, Trisha. 2001. How to read a paper: The basics of evidence based medicine. London: BMJ Books.

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  A concise introduction to the basics of searching the literature, assessing methodological quality, appraising the evidence, and implementing evidence-based findings.

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• Hoffmann, T., S. Bennett, and C. Del Mar. 2010. Evidence-based practice across the health professions. Sydney and New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier.

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  The first part of the book covers the general steps of evidence-based practice and the second part looks at the evidence-based practice issues of specific health professions.

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• Petitti, D. B. 2000. Meta-analysis, decision analysis, and cost-effectiveness analysis: Methods for quantitative synthesis in medicine. 2d ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

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  Provides succinct overviews of three methods individually and collectively useful for evidence-based practice: meta-analysis, decision analysis, and cost-effectiveness analysis.

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Bibliographies

This section provides a listing of three web-based bibliographies on evidence-based public health issues that provide additional references not cited in this entry. The University of Michigan resource (compiled by the Michigan Center for Public Health Preparedness) emphasizes journal articles and books. The Columbia University resource highlights Internet resources and evidence-based organizations. The Flinders resource focuses on journals and relevant databases.

• Columbia University. Evidence Based Practice Annotated Bibliography and Resource Guide.

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  This resource provides an extensive listing of Internet resources highlighting evidence-based organizations. Although the primary audience is social workers, many of the organizations are also relevant to public health practice.

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• Flinders University. Evidence-Based Health Practice.

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  This resource is a thorough listing of relevant journals as well as databases relevant to multiple health-care disciplines.

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• University of Michigan Center for Public Health Preparedness. Evidence-Based Public Health Bibliography.

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  A traditional bibliography focusing on evidence-based public health. It includes journal articles, books, and Internet resources.

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Journals

This section provides a listing of journals that are evidence-based, as indicated by their title. Most are not specific to public health but can be relevant sources of evidence for specific disciplines (also as indicated by their title) working within the public health sector. These journals afford practitioners an efficient and effective way to review the vast health-care literature. Physicians, in particular, will find useful Evidence-Based Medicine, Evidence-Based Child Health: A Cochrane Review Journal, and Bandolier: Evidence-Based Health Care. Evidence relevant to nursing may be found in Evidence-Based Nursing and Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing. The International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare is particularly useful for the translation and transfer of research to practice. Those interested in the evidence-based financing, organization, and management of health care should look to Evidence-Based Healthcare and Public Health.

• Bandolier: Evidence-Based Health Care.

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  This independent journal about evidence-based health care includes information about evidence of effectiveness (or lack of it), and presents the results in a simple bulleted format: “things that worked and those that did not.” The evidence presented is obtained from systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and randomized trials, and forms high-quality observation studies.

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• Evidence-Based Child Health: A Cochrane Review Journal.

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  Public health pediatricians and other public health primary-care clinicians will find this resource extremely useful, as each issue highlights four to six reviews from the Cochrane Collaboration. The reviews are selected based on their importance to current pediatric practice.

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• Evidence-Based Healthcare and Public Health.

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  This journal, which ceased publication in 2005, selects key articles from over seventy highly recognized journals in the field. Each article is reviewed in the form of a structured abstract and expert commentary. Easy to assimilate and understand, the journal provides health managers and policy makers with the best evidence about the financing, organization, and management of health care.

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• Evidence-Based Medicine.

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  Surveying a wide range of international medical journals in primary care covering family practice, internal medicine, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, and surgery, this journal provides a collection of “best works” from an evidence-based perspective and is a useful resource for public health physicians.

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• Evidence-Based Nursing.

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  Public health nurses will find this journal useful as it selects articles from a wide range of international journals, applying strict criteria for the quality and validity of research. Key details of each article selected are included in a succinct, informative commentary on their clinical application.

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• International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare.

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  This journal focuses on scholarly publications on the synthesis (translation), transfer (distribution), and utilization (implementation and evaluation) of evidence to inform multidisciplinary health-care practice. It also publishes commentary regarding the generation and synthesis of evidence for practice, the use and evaluation of evidence in practice, and the process of conducting systematic reviews.

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• Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing.

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  This journal is useful for public health nurses and includes synthesis articles with best practice applications and recommendations for clinical practice, nursing administration, nursing education, and public health-care policy.

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Research Databases

Several evidence-based organizations exist and provide resources for evidence-based practice. Resources often include evidence-based databases, including complete reviews, and frequently offer assistance. This section identifies several of these databases. The CDC-sponsored Guide to Community Preventive Services specifically targets the needs of public health practice from an evidence-based perspective. The Cochrane Collaboration addresses the wider health-care audience but includes entities that are specific to public health (public health review group) or are otherwise relevant (effective practice and organization of care); it also provides an electronic library of systematic reviews and other database resources. The Campbell Collaboration examines issues relevant to public health (social welfare, which also includes social work) in addition to nonhealth areas such as education and justice. The Centre for Reviews and Dissemination is a resource that often includes reviews of public health relevance, such as the fluoridation of community water supplies. The Joanna Briggs Institute provides evidence-based reviews focusing on nursing and allied health concerns.

• The Campbell Collaboration.

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  The Campbell Collaboration is a “sister organization” to the Cochrane Collaboration. It produces reviews relevant to social welfare (social work and public health), education, and justice. It also produces a library of complete reviews.

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• Centre for Reviews and Dissemination.

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  Frequently produces reviews of public health relevance and provides guidelines for conducting reviews.

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• The Cochrane Collaboration.

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  The Cochrane Collaboration is an international organization that produces systematic reviews of health-care interventions. Most reviews are applicable to direct, individual patient care, but a few subentities within the Collaboration provide reviews relevant to population health (public health review group, and effective practice and organization of care group). The Collaboration also produces and continuously updates the electronic Cochrane Library of reviews.

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• Guide to Community Preventive Services.

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  This site is specific to public health practice and provides systematic reviews and recommendations for practice. It is an excellent resource for public health agencies when considering community-based interventions or other interventions addressing population health concerns that include the following: adolescent health, alcohol, asthma, birth defects, cancer, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted infections and pregnancy, mental health, motor vehicles, nutrition, obesity, oral health, physical activity, social environments, tobacco, vaccines, violence and the workplace.

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• Joanna Briggs Institute.

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  The Joanna Briggs Institute focuses on reviews of evidence primarily relevant to nursing and allied health, but it occasionally produces reviews that are relevant to specific populations such as the elderly.

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Implementation

Waters and Doyle 2003 provides an overview of evidence-based practice and the skills necessary for achieving it. Orme 2003 addresses how public health practitioners from multiple disciplines can become more evidence-based. Roberts and Yeager 2004 offers a manual for summarizing key concepts and procedures in the development and application of evidence-based practice. Briss, et al. 2004 discusses how the Guide to Community Preventive Services can be used in evidence-based public health. Robeson, et al. 2010 describes a hierarchy for choosing among different types of evidence.

• Briss, P. A., R. C. Brownson, J. E. Fielding, and S. Zaza. 2004. Developing and using the Guide to Community Preventive Services: Lessons learned about evidence-based public health. Annual Review of Public Health 25:281–302.

  DOI: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.050503.153933Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Summarizes the importance, development, and application of the Guide to Community Preventive Services, providing detailed information on stepwise mechanisms and the methodologies needed to elaborate a community guide, how to translate results from systematic reviews into policy action, and future research needs.

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• Orme, J. 2003. Public health for the 21st century: New perspectives on policy, participation and practice. Maidenhead, UK: Open Univ. Press.

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  Explores how multidisciplinary public health professionals can move toward an evidence-informed public health practice.

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• Roberts, A. R., and K. Yeager. 2004. Evidence-based practice manual: Research and outcome measures in health and human services. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

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  A manual that summarizes the key concepts and procedures in developing and applying evidence-based practice, with discussions that include program evaluation, quality and operational improvement strategies, research grant applications, and using statistical procedures.

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• Robeson, Paula, Maureen Dobbins, Kara DeCorby, and Daiva Tirilis 2010. Facilitating access to pre-processed research evidence in public health. BMC Public Health 10.1: 95.

  DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-10-95Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Describes a six-level pyramid of an evidence method appraisal suitable to the public health setting. This hierarchy organizes systematic reviews, summaries, synopses of syntheses, syntheses, synopses of single studies, and single studies providing examples for each of these and how to use them as evidence.

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• Waters, E., and J. Doyle. 2003. Evidence-based public health: Cochrane update. Journal of Public Health Medicine 25.1: 72–75.

  DOI: 10.1093/pubmed/fdg015Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An introductory paper that provides an overview of aspects of evidence that are crucial to identify for evidence-based policy applications, the skills necessary for evidence-based practice, and how to find evidence.

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Challenges

There are many challenges to consider when moving toward evidence-based public health (EBPH) and a sample of these are addressed in this section. Dopson and Fitzgerald 2005 addresses the difficulty of evidence-based approaches in the presence of strong professional views and intricate organizational structures, and provides case studies over a ten-year period. Ter Muelen, et al. 2005 offers insight into ethical issues related to evidence-based approaches. Anderson, et al. 2005 discusses challenges as they relate to evidence-based health policy. Green 2006 gives a view from a different perspective—the need for evidence to become more practice-relevant. Kemm 2006 explores the limitations of EBPH that arise from the methods of systematic review. Waters and Doyle 2002 examines why practitioners fail to implement EBPH methods.

• Anderson, L. M., R. C. Brownson, M. T. Fullilove, S. M. Teutsch, L. F. Novick, J. Fielding, and G. H. Land. 2005. Evidence-based public health policy and practice: Promises and limits. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 28.5 Suppl.: 226–230.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2005.02.014Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This work explains how to weight available data and assess quantitative and qualitative factors when evidence is incomplete. Challenges the US Preventive Task Force faced when implementing evidence-based public health included difficulty in appraising program effectiveness, nature of outcomes, uneven available information, and existence of qualitative or quantitative data.

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• Dopson, S., and L. Fitzgerald. 2005. Knowledge to action? Evidence-based health care in context. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

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  Explores the difficulty in implementing research evidence in health services in the presence of strong professional views and intricate organizational structures. This text documents fifty case studies of attempts to introduce evidence-based practice in the UK National Health Service over a period of ten years.

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• Green, L. W. 2006. Public health asks of systems science: To advance our evidence-based practice, can you help us get more practice-based evidence? American Journal of Public Health 96.3: 406–409.

  DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.066035Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper questions the exclusive use of randomized controlled trials as evidence by policy makers since this does not resemble real-life situations.

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• Kemm, J. 2006. The limitations of “evidence-based” public health. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 12.3: 319–324.

  DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2753.2006.00600.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Discusses challenges such as the correct assessment of evidence, using randomized controlled trials (inadequate study when dealing with populations), incorporating systematic reviews (unpublished sources are not equally incorporated), using meta-analysis (incorporating noncomparable interventions in the same study), and analyzing the context of policy implementation.

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• ter Meulen, R., N. Biller-Andorno, and R. Lenk-Lie. 2005. Evidence-based practice in medicine and health care: A discussion of the ethical issues. Berlin and New York: Springer.

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  Presents the ethical issues at stake in introducing evidence-based practice and health policy.

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• Waters, E., and J. Doyle. 2002. Evidence-based public health practice: Improving the quality and quantity of the evidence. Journal of Public Health Medicine 24.3: 227–229.

  DOI: 10.1093/pubmed/24.3.227Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper provides an overview of the benefits that evidence use might bring to public health practice, why practitioners fail to implement EBPH methods, the Cochrane Collaboration and EBPH, and how to conduct systematic reviews.

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Training

Several of the previous citations have alluded to the need for training of public health professionals in evidence-based methods and approaches to practice. This is also true for academic preparation in schools and public health programs that prepare the future public health workforce. Gray 1997 examines the level of competence in evidence-based skills needed by such a workforce. Dreisinger, et al. 2008 addresses the improvements and barriers experienced by practitioners after receiving evidence-based training. O’Neall and Brownson 2005 reports on the impact of an evidence-based course on the engagement of stakeholders in program development and evaluation. Baker, et al. 2009 provides qualitatively based insights on the process evaluation and impact of an evidence-based public health (EBPH) course for translating evidence in local settings.

• Baker, E. A., R. C. Brownson, M. Dreisinger, L. D. McIntosh, and A. Karamehic Muratovic. 2009. Examining the role of training in evidence-based public health: A qualitative study. Health Promotion Practice 10.3: 342–348.

  DOI: 10.1177/1524839909336649Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Reports on qualitative interviews conducted to evaluate the process and impact of a course on public health practitioners who have not had the opportunity to learn and develop the skills needed to translate evidence-based programs in local settings; the course was found to assist in the development of the skills to make evidence-based decisions.

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• Dreisinger, M., T. L. Leet, E. A. Baker, K. N. Gillespie, B. Haas, and R. C. Brownson. 2008. Improving the public health workforce: Evaluation of a training course to enhance evidence-based decision making. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice 14.2: 138–143.

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  Evaluation of the changes, improvements, and barriers experienced by public health practitioners working in health departments after successful completion of an evidence-based public health course at Saint Louis University between 2001 and 2004.

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• Gray, J. A. 1997. Evidence-based public health: What level of competence is required? Journal of Public Health Medicine 19.1: 65–68.

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  This paper evaluates whether public health practitioners were skilled in searching, appraising, and storing evidence as well as using it by forming workshops whereby practitioners could identify the resources needed to implement evidence-based practice; the primary aim was to establish appropriate levels of competence for evidence-based practitioners.

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• O’Neall, M. A., and R. C. Brownson. 2005. Teaching evidence-based public health to public health practitioners. Annals of Epidemiology 15.7: 540–544.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2004.09.001Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Reports on the impact of a course on EBPH on the engagement of stakeholders in program development and evaluation, health behavior assessments, scientific program development, and impact evaluation.

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Other Disciplines

Readers interested in evidence-based public health practice will find evidence-based experience in other disciplines to be not only interesting and informative but also relevant as the field of public health moves increasingly toward evidence-based public health. Godshall 2010, Hamer and Collingson 2005, and Newell and Burnard 2006 provide perspectives on evidence-based practice from the nursing profession. Roberts and Yeager 2006 discusses evidence-based practice in the field of social work. Macgowan 2008 offers an in-depth review of evidence-based group work in the social work arena.

• Godshall, M. 2010. Fast facts for evidence-based practice: Implementing EBP in a nutshell. New York: Springer.

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  A concise guide on evidence-based practice designed for nurses and nursing students. Discusses topics from defining the research question to evaluating and disseminating the evidence.

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• Hamer, S., and G. Collinson. 2005. Achieving evidence-based practice: A handbook for practitioners. 2d ed. Edinburgh and New York: Baillìere Tindall Elsevier.

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  A handbook for nurse practitioners on achieving evidence-based practice. Topics covered include looking for evidence, applying evidence, and reflecting on it using examples and case studies.

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• Macgowan, M. J. 2008. A guide to evidence-based group work. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

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  This is the first book of its kind that is organized to illustrate how to practice evidence-based group work. A nice framework for evidence-based practice that explores these five stages: formulating a practice question, searching for evidence, critically appraising the evidence, critically appraising its impact, and critically appraising its applicability.

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• Newell, R., and P. Burnard. 2006. Vital notes for nurses: Research for evidence-based practice. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

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  Provides a concise introduction to research and evidence-based practice for nursing students and newly qualified nurses; examines research from a clinical practice perspective while presenting methodology for good research and the process for research appraisal, dissemination, and implementation.

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• Roberts, A. R., and K. Yeager. 2006. Foundations of evidence-based social work practice. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

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  A manual that summarizes the key concepts and procedures in developing and applying evidence-based practice with discussions that include program evaluation, quality and operational improvement strategies, research grant applications, and using statistical procedures.

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Policy

Distinct from public health practice, but closely connected is the area of evidence-based health policy. Bogenschneider and Corbett 2010 provides a discussion of the need to integrate policy making with research. Lin and Gibson 2003, while advocating for evidence-based health policy, investigates the many inherent difficulties. Brownson, et al. 2009 offers a view of evidence-based health policy from a public health perspective, and identifies missing gaps that need to be addressed before moving forward. Fielding and Briss 2006 introduces three different tools: health impact assessments, systematic reviews, and community participatory research. Donaldson, et al. 2002 and Shemilt 2010 address the importance of linking health economics within the context of evidence-based social and health policy. Ramirez 2009 addresses the challenges of timely evidence with respect to the needs of policy makers.

• Bogenschneider, K., and T. Corbett. 2010. Evidence-based policymaking: Insights from policy-minded researchers and research-minded policymakers. New York: Routledge.

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  Explores the need to integrate policy making with research so that policy falls in line with current research and more practical decisions can be made.

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• Brownson, R. C., J. F. Chriqui, and K. A. Stamatakis. 2009. Understanding evidence-based public health policy. American Journal of Public Health 99.9: 1576–1583.

  DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2008.156224Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Addresses the gap between the definition of evidence-based policy and approaches to move the field forward. Three domains of evidence-based policy are identified: process, content, and outcomes. Actions to further evidence-based policy are discussed.

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• Donaldson, C., M. Mugford, and L. Vale. 2002. Evidence-based health economics. London: BMJ Books.

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  Couples health economics with systematic literature reviews to support more efficient and equitable health policy while discussing the benefits and limitations of economic evaluations. Lays a foundation that looks into the future of evidence-based health economics.

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• Fielding, J. E., and P. A. Briss. 2006. Promoting evidence-based public health policy: Can we have better evidence and more action? Health Affairs (Project Hope) 25.4: 969–978.

  DOI: 10.1377/hlthaff.25.4.969Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Introduces three tools necessary to incorporate scientific evidence into health policy decision making: health impact assessments (whether something needs to be done in the community), systematic reviews (determining what should be done), and community fit feasibility (community participatory research to evaluate policy impact in a real-life scenario).

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• Lin, V., and B. Gibson. 2003. Evidence-based health policy: Problems and possibilities. South Melbourne, Australia, and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

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  Advocates for more use of evidence in the decision-making process and also looks at the problems with doing so. Investigates theoretical insights that recognize the importance of both political evidence and traditional academic evidence in the decision process.

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• Ramirez, Gilbert. 2009. Improving the health of populations—evidence for policy and practice action. Journal of Evidence-Based Medicine 2.4: 216–219.

  DOI: 10.1111/j.1756-5391.2009.01044.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Addresses reasons why current methods for evidence-based reviews are not responsive to the needs of policy makers, and provides suggestions for increasing the responsiveness of current review strategies.

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• Shemilt, I. 2010. Evidence-based decisions and economics: Health care, social welfare, education and criminal justice. 2d ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

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  A look at evidence-based decision making for health policy from a social and economic viewpoint. This review expands on the research methodology for evidence-based decisions.

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Practice in Developing Countries

As developed countries move toward evidence-based public health practice, many are concerned with its applicability in developing countries. McMichael, et al. 2005 addresses this concern and suggests how to improve practice with the incorporation of social policy. Pappaioanou, et al. 2003 addresses specific guidelines for appraising and using evidence in developing countries.

• McMichael, C., E. Waters, and J. Volmink. 2005. Evidence-based public health: What does it offer developing countries? Journal of Public Health 27.2: 215–221.

  DOI: 10.1093/pubmed/fdi024Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Addresses the applicability of current reviews to practice in developing countries, and how to improve this through the incorporation of social policy.

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• Pappaioanou, M., M. Malison, K. Wilkins, B. Otto, R. A. Goodman, R. E. Churchill, M. White, and S. B. Thacker. 2003. Strengthening capacity in developing countries for evidence-based public health: The data for decision-making project. Social Science & Medicine 57.10: 1925–1937.

  DOI: 10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00058-3Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This paper deals with guidelines to appraise and use data and evidence appropriately in developing countries.

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