Education The Digital Age Teacher
by
Louise Starkey
  • LAST REVIEWED: 29 July 2020
  • LAST MODIFIED: 28 July 2021
  • DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0002

Introduction

The digital age began at the time that digital technologies were introduced into society. The defining feature of a digital age is how people organize their lives, communicate, learn, and society functions to some extent through the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs), analytical programs, the Internet, social media, and digital devices. Teachers exist within this context where digital technologies are being introduced, integrated, and infused into schools. As such, teaching within the digital age is a changing and multifaceted area of research. How teaching is changing, curriculum is evolving, what teachers need to know and be able to do, and how they learn to be digital teachers have been studied and reported in the literature. The knowledge and skills that the digital teacher requires to integrate digital technologies successfully into their teaching practice have been proposed and developed into frameworks within the research literature. However, the research is underpinned by notions of education and learning that predate the digital age, as the implications of a digitally enhanced society on pedagogical theories are simultaneously researched and debated. This evolving epistemology makes the process and interpretation of research problematic, requiring a critical lens.

Journals

The range of journals listed in this section focus on publishing academic articles that explore the use of digital technologies within education. This focus also includes empirical research and theory development. The British Journal of Educational Technology and Educational Technology Research and Development both focus on the development and use of digital technologies specific to schooling and higher education and publish research on a range of different types of technologies. Computers and Education reports research that specifically examines the use of computing within educational contexts as does Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, which takes a subject discipline focus and provides a multimedia format. Technology, Pedagogy and Education focuses on learning and educational environments that are supported by digital technologies. The Journal of Technology and Teacher Education focuses on the use of digital technologies within teachers’ learning. Journals such as the Journal of Learning Analytics specialize in one aspect of a digitally infused education context in which teachers work. Journals that focus on teaching and learning also publish articles relevant to the digital age teacher.

The Digital Age

The digital age is a context within which the digital teacher is situated. Its broad definition is the time when digital technologies are available and widely used within society. There are different perspectives on the digital age that alter as technology, society, and knowledge change. One concept associated with the digital age is globalization. Anderson 2008 introduces the phenomena of the long tail to explore how global connections can be utilized from a marketing and business perspective, an idea that has had political and societal implications. The development of the Internet and digital technologies has provided fast mobile access to information, resources, and new ways of engaging in society and new tools for teaching and learning such as robotics and artificial intelligence (AI) (Selwyn 2019). The digital teacher and education systems are situated within a connected global society, with curriculum and pedagogical implications for what and how students are taught and what being a teacher means (Starkey 2020). Connectivism is a theory developed within the context of education in the digital age (Siemens 2005) and is applied to research exploring the use of educational technology. For example, Starkey 2012 applies connectivism to explore teaching and learning in the context of the digital age.

  • Anderson, C. 2008. The long tail: Why the future of business is selling less of more. Rev. ed. New York: Hyperion.

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    The digital age is providing access to global networks that allows people to connect with a wider range of products, people, and ideas than was possible prior to the Internet. While this book focuses on the commercial implications, the ideas presented can be applied to teaching and learning.

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  • Selwyn, N. 2011. Schools and schooling in the digital age: A critical analysis. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge.

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    This text provides a critical analysis of the debates, expectations, and use of digital technologies in schools. The use of digital technologies as a vehicle to engineer educational change is questioned, and the author calls for wider awareness of the context of schooling in the digital age.

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  • Selwyn, N. 2019. Should robots replace teachers? AI and the future of education. Cambridge, UK: Polity.

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    This book examines technological developments of robotics and AI in education such as autonomous classroom robots, intelligent tutoring systems, learning analytics, and automated decision making, and it critiques the capacity of AI to replicate the social, emotional, and cognitive qualities of human teachers.

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  • Siemens, G. 2005. Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning 2.1: 3–10.

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    Connectivism aims to provide a basis for examining how multiple aspects of information creation interact and evolve. The theory considers how people, organizations, and technology work collaboratively to construct knowledge, building on ideas that have emerged since the introduction of widespread interaction and access to information through the Internet. A later book by the same author, Knowing Knowledge (Winnipeg, MB: Siemens, 2006), expands the theory.

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  • Starkey, L. 2012. Teaching and learning in the digital age. New York: Routledge.

    DOI: 10.4324/9780203117422Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This book provides an overview of teaching and learning within a digital age context. Theories of learning are explored, and the implications of the digital age on teaching and learning are considered. Examples of teaching and learning that could occur within schooling in the digital age are included.

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  • Starkey, L. 2020. A review of research exploring teacher preparation for the digital age. Cambridge Journal of Education 50.1: 37–56.

    DOI: 10.1080/0305764X.2019.1625867Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article critiques what has been researched in initial teacher education with regard to preparing student teachers for the digital age. It identifies three phases of technology integration into education: introduction, integration, and infusion, with the focus of research being on integration or introduction of technology, rather than exploring the digitally infused context.

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Learners and Learning

A number of studies examine children and young people’s use of digital technologies. Pew Internet and American Life Project researchers survey US households and provide a range of accessible reports on teenage and young adults in the digital age. Some digital technologies are seen as being essential accessories within youth culture at the start of the digital age, which created an assumption of a generation gap. One theme within the literature that explores school age learners in the digital age is a generational gap between students and those of their teachers. This gap is highlighted in Prensky 2001, which suggests a metaphor of digital natives and digital immigrants. While this concept has been popular, it has been examined in the literature and found to be too simplistic in Eynon and Helsper 2010 and likened to a “moral panic” in Bennett, et al. 2008. A second potential gap for learners and learning are digital divides arising from differentiated access to the Internet and devices in education systems and homes. Two reports are included that reflect change in access and use over time. The first, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2015 associates greater computer use with lower academic results. The second, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2020 identifies a positive association between Internet access and reading outcomes. This reflects the complexity of measuring the impact of educational technology on student learning. To explore the complexity, Starkey 2011 provides a matrix for evaluating learning that considers learning in the context of a digital age. Case study research examines the complexity of learner experience or learning within a context (for example, Starkey, et al. 2019) and systematic reviews provide insight across contexts, such as a review that explores the educational value of learning at home (Daoud, et al. 2020).

  • Bennett, S., K. Maton, and L. Kervin. 2008. The “digital natives” debate: A critical review of the evidence. British Journal of Educational Technology 39.5: 775–786.

    DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00793.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The claims made about the characteristics of digital natives are explored and found to not align with the research evidence. The debate about digital natives and immigrants is examined and likened to a “moral panic” within education and academic spheres. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

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  • Daoud, R., L. Starkey, E. Eppel, T. D. Vo, and A. Sylvester. 2020. The educational value of Internet use in the home for school children: A systematic review of literature. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 1–22.

    DOI: 10.1080/15391523.2020.1783402Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The literature was examined to identify what pre–COVID-19 research had found about the educational value of Internet use at home. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

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  • Eynon, Rebecca, and Ellen Johanna Helsper. 2010. Digital natives: Where is the evidence? British Educational Research Journal 36.3: 503–520.

    DOI: 10.1080/01411920902989227Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The authors question the popular metaphor of digital natives through an analysis of a nationally representative survey in the United Kingdom. Breadth of use, experience, gender, and educational levels rather than generational differences are identified as predictors of advanced interaction with the Internet. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

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  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2015. Students, computers and learning: Making the connection. Programme for International Student Assessment. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development..

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    This Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report draws on Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) data from 2012 and 2018 to summarize computer access and school policies across approximately sixty OECD countries. The report correlates data such as student reading achievement, school policies, Internet access, and computer access at school. Data is from fifteen-year-olds and school principals.

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  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2020. PISA 2018 results (Volume V): Effective policies, successful schools. Programme for International Student Assessment. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

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    Chapter 5 in this report examines how school material resources, including computer resources, correlate to reading levels and socioeconomic contexts within and between schools in OECD countries.

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  • Prensky, M. 2001. Digital natives, digital immigrants. Part 1. On the Horizon 9.5: 1–6.

    DOI: 10.1108/10748120110424816Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The original opinion piece that suggests that people growing up immersed in digital culture are different to those of previous generations in their use, uptake, and understanding of digital technologies. The author asserts that the schooling system is not aligned with the learning needs of these digital native students. Available online for purchase or by subscription. Prensky continues the discussion in “Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. Part 2: Do They Really Think Differently? On the Horizon 9.6: 1–6, also available online for purchase or by subscription.

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  • Starkey, L. 2011. Evaluating learning in the 21st century: A digital age learning matrix. Technology, Pedagogy and Education 20.1: 19–39.

    DOI: 10.1080/1475939X.2011.554021Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article describes an evaluation tool developed using emerging ideas about knowledge creation and learning in a connected society. The digital age learning matrix was successfully trialed and applied in a study of six digitally able beginning teachers during their first year of teaching to identify aspects of learning occurring as digital technologies were integrated into their teaching practice. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

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  • Starkey, L., E. A. Eppel, and A. Sylvester. 2019. How do 10-year-old New Zealanders participate in a digital world? Information, Communication & Society 22.13: 1929–1944.

    DOI: 10.1080/1369118X.2018.1472795Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article reports findings from a study that examined how pre-adolescent children, age 9–11 years participate in the digital world. The findings include differences in use of digital technology and participation in the digital world were influenced predominantly by their family and their teacher and the similarities were a reflected pre-teen culture.

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Digital Age Teachers

How teachers become digital teachers has been a focus in the literature. Researchers have examined the factors that affect teachers’ use digital technologies in their classroom. The focus has changed over time, with three phases: technology being introduced, integrated, or infused within teaching practice (Starkey 2020). Mumtaz 2000 reviews early literature identifying a range of affordances and constraints faced by individual teachers. Over time as technology becomes more widely available, the accessibility, support, and structural constraints identified by Mumtaz and earlier authors appear to have declined, and the focus turned to teacher beliefs as the key factor influencing how and whether teachers become digital teachers. Ertmer 2005 identifies and suggests a framework for examining teacher beliefs. Ottenbreit-Leftwich and Ertmer 2010 considers teacher characteristics that enable teachers to integrate digital technologies into their teaching practice. The context of the digital teacher influences the integration of digital technologies through structures, policies, culture, and professional learning on a systemic level and through professional learning communities. The COVID-19 pandemic created a rapid change in the integration and use of digital tools and pedagogies within education (for example, see Starkey, et al. 2021, a special issue of Technology, Pedagogy and Education).

  • Ertmer, Peggy A. 2005. Teacher pedagogical beliefs: The final frontier in our quest for technology integration? Educational Technology Research and Development 53.4: 25–39.

    DOI: 10.1007/BF02504683Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article finds that when conditions identified in previous research for successful technology integration appeared to be in place (including access, training, and a favorable policy environment), the use of digital technologies by teachers can remain low. The author suggests that teachers’ pedagogical beliefs may be an important condition and presents a conceptual overview. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

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  • Mumtaz, Shazia. 2000. Factors affecting teachers’ use of information and communications technology: A review of the literature. Technology, Pedagogy and Education 9.3: 319–342.

    DOI: 10.1080/14759390000200098Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A review of literature that identifies factors that influence teachers’ decisions to use ICT in the classroom. The factors identified include access to resources, quality of software and hardware, ease of use, incentives to change, support and collegiality in the school, school and national polices, commitment to professional learning, and background in formal computer training.

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  • Ottenbreit-Leftwich, Anne T., and Peggy A. Ertmer. 2010. Teacher technology change: How knowledge, confidence, beliefs, and culture intersect. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 42.3: 255–284.

    DOI: 10.1080/15391523.2010.10782551Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article examines technology integration through the lens of the teacher as an agent of change. The necessary characteristics, or qualities, that enable teachers to leverage technology resources as meaningful pedagogical tools are explored. The literature related to four variables of teacher change: knowledge, self-efficacy, pedagogical beliefs, and subject and school culture is discussed. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

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  • Starkey, L. 2020. A review of research exploring teacher preparation for the digital age. Cambridge Journal of Education 50.1: 37–56.

    DOI: 10.1080/0305764X.2019.1625867Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This review identifies how teacher digital competence is framed in literature across different phases of digital integration and implications for initial teacher education.

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  • Starkey, L., M. Shonfeld, S. Prestridge, and M. G. Cervera, eds. 2021. Special issue: COVID-19 and the role of technology and pedagogy on school education during a pandemic. Technology, Pedagogy and Education 30.1.

    DOI: 10.1080/1475939X.2021.1866838Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This special edition of Technology, Pedagogy and Education provides insight into the context of teachers at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. It includes research from thirteen contexts, including Kazakhstan, Libya, Australia, and the United States.

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Curriculum

The taught curriculum prepares students to participate in society as adults in the future. As society changes, so does curriculum. The digital age teacher will be teaching knowledge and skills for the digital age (for example, Starkey 2016). New subjects such as computational thinking are being introduced to the curriculum, which Wing 2006 describes as a 21st-century skill. Existing subjects are changing in response to change in society such as music teaching adapting to digital musicianship (Wise, et al. 2011). In addition, there is debate in the literature and policymaking between the teaching of generic 21st-century skills and academic rationalism; this tension is outlined in Young 2013. Rata 2012 advocates for the importance of disciplinary knowledge being taught in schools, while Prensky 2014 argues that disciplinary knowledge is outdated. Voogt and Roblin 2012 analyzes the 21st-century skills included in policy documents from different contexts; Kereluik, et al. 2013 consider the types of knowledge within curricular frameworks; and Priestley and Sinnema 2014 examines the positioning of disciplinary knowledge within curriculum documents. These debated notions of curriculum are reflected in the different digital competence frameworks discussed in this section’s citations.

  • Kereluik, K., P. Mishra, C. Fahnoe, and L. Terry. 2013. What knowledge is of most worth. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education 29.4: 127–140.

    DOI: 10.1080/21532974.2013.10784716Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In an analysis of curriculum frameworks, the authors identify three types of knowledge necessary for the 21st century: foundational, meta, and humanistic. They conclude that although 21st-century frameworks are thought to advocate new types of knowledge, little has changed in the new century with respect to the overall goals of education.

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  • Prensky, M. 2014. The world needs a new curriculum: It’s time to lose the “proxies,” and go beyond “21st century skills”—and get all students in the world to the real core of education. Educational Technology 3–15.

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    This opinion piece argues that 21st-century skills support the discipline focus of the past century, and it proposes a new focus for curriculum that prepares students for the digital age.

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  • Priestley, M., and C. Sinnema. 2014. Downgraded curriculum? An analysis of knowledge in new curricula in Scotland and New Zealand. Curriculum Journal 25.1: 50–75.

    DOI: 10.1080/09585176.2013.872047Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Priestley and Sinnema examine the positioning of disciplinary knowledge and 21st-century skills in two curricula.

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  • Rata, E. 2012. The politics of knowledge in education. British Educational Research Journal 38.1: 103–124.

    DOI: 10.1080/01411926.2011.615388Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article outlines the arguments for curriculum that is focused on disciplinary knowledge and equity in education.

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  • Starkey, L. 2016. An equitable curriculum for a digital age. Curriculum Matters 12:29–45.

    DOI: 10.18296/cm.0012Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Examines how the digital age is influencing the curriculum and the positioning of discipline knowledge and skills within the New Zealand curriculum.

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  • Voogt, J., and N. P. Roblin. 2012. A comparative analysis of international frameworks for 21st century competences: Implications for national curriculum policies. Journal of Curriculum Studies 44.3: 299–321.

    DOI: 10.1080/00220272.2012.668938Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article examines how 21st-century skills are framed in curriculum policies in different countries.

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  • Wing, J. M. 2006. Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM 49.3: 33–35.

    DOI: 10.1145/1118178.1118215Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Wing introduces and defines the term “computational thinking,” and this forms the basis for further development and curriculum adoption of the term.

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  • Wise, S., J. Greenwood, and N. Davis. 2011. Teachers’ use of digital technology in secondary music education: Illustrations of changing classrooms. British Journal of Music Education 28.2: 117–134.

    DOI: 10.1017/S0265051711000039Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The authors examine music education in the digital age, in a time when digital musicians are entering the classroom.

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  • Young, M. 2013. Overcoming the crisis in curriculum theory: A knowledge-based approach. Journal of curriculum studies 45.2: 101–118.

    DOI: 10.1080/00220272.2013.764505Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Michael Young examines the debate between student-centered and discipline-focused curriculum from the English context.

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Assessment and Evaluation

The range of data available to digital age teachers that can inform their pedagogical decisions is growing exponentially. Siemens 2013 provides a historical overview of learning analytics, and Buckingham Shum 2012 outlines the field in a policy brief to UNESCO. The use of learning analytics has the potential to change aspects of the work of the teacher, and with this in mind, Selwyn 2020 critiques the increase of “datafication” on the work of the digital age teacher. Blikstein and Worsley 2016 provides an introduction to multimodal learning analytics, an emerging area of data analytics and research in education. Learning analytics is the focus of the SOLAR group that researches and publishes in this area.

  • Blikstein, P., and M. Worsley. 2016. Multimodal learning analytics and education data mining: Using computational technologies to measure complex learning tasks. Journal of Learning Analytics 3.2: 220–238.

    DOI: 10.18608/jla.2016.32.11Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The authors argue that multimodal learning analytics can offer new insights into students’ learning trajectories in more complex and open-ended learning environments than those limited to keyboard use. They provide case study examples.

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  • Buckingham Shum, S. 2012. Learning analytics. IITE Policy Brief. Moscow: UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education.

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    This policy brief provides an overview of learning analytics and is a good starting point for considering learning analytics in education.

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  • Selwyn, N. 2020. The human labour of school data: Exploring the production of digital data in schools. Oxford Review of Education.

    DOI: 10.1080/03054985.2020.1835628Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this article, Neil Selwyn critically examines the effect of digital data use, or what he calls the “datafication of education,” on the work of a teacher using a case study approach.

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  • Siemens, G. 2013. Learning analytics: The emergence of a discipline. American Behavioral Scientist 57.10: 1380–1400.

    DOI: 10.1177/0002764213498851Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article examines the emergence of learning analytics in education and what it entails. It concludes with the need to recognize it as a field of research.

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Teacher Digital Competence

The knowledge and skills that teachers need for the digital age have been identified and specified in models that influence policy, research, and professional development programs in different contexts. In Europe, the Digital Competence Framework for Educators (DigCompEdu) was developed by the European Commission (Redecker 2017). In the United States, the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) standards for educators (International Society for Technology in Education 2017) provides guidance to leverage educational technology to empower learners. The professional digital competence framework (PDCF) for teachers (Kelentrić, et al. 2017) draws on Norwegian guidelines for education such as the basic skills framework, curriculum, and the national qualifications framework.

  • International Society for Technology in Education. 2017. ISTE standards for educators. Washington, DC: International Society for Technology in Education.

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    The ISTE framework describes standards for digital technology use in classrooms and schools by practicing teachers. There is a focus on empowering students. Each of the seven standards focus on a different aspect of the role of the teacher: the teacher as a learner, leader, citizen, collaborator, facilitator, designer, and analyst in the field of educational technology.

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  • Kelentrić, M., K. Helland, and A. T. Arstorp. 2017. Professional digital competence framework for teachers. Tromsö, Norway: Norwegian Centre for ICT in Education.

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    The PDCF framework is developed for the Norwegian context and acknowledges the unique digital knowledge and skills within specialist subject areas. It consists of seven competence areas related to the role of the teacher: subjects and basic skill, school in society, ethics, pedagogy and subject didactics, leadership of learning processes, interaction and communication, and change and development.

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  • Redecker, C. 2017. European framework for the digital competence of educators: DigCompEdu. (No. JRC107466). Seville, Spain: European Commission Joint Research Centre.

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    The DigCompEdu Framework is designed for practicing teachers as an evaluation tool as digital pedagogies are added to their existing practices. It includes six areas important to the work of teachers: professional engagement, digital resources, assessment, teaching and learning, empowering learners, and facilitating learners’ digital competence. Within each area are progressions to enable educators to self-assess their own competencies.

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Digital Teacher Professional Learning Models

How teachers learn to become digital teachers is a significant focus in research. Models or frameworks have been developed and used within research with differing foci on teacher knowledge, perceptions of tools, attitudes, and context. The most widespread being the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPaCK) framework (Mishra and Koehler 2006) that focuses on the knowledge that digital teachers need. However, the simplicity of the model reduces the reliability as an empirical measure for research (Voogt, et al. 2013). The technology acceptance model originally developed in Davis 1989 has been applied to teachers. The focus of this model is that acceptance of technology in the workplace is influenced by the perceived usefulness and ease of use; it is a model that teachers can apply when considering whether to use a particular tool. The will, skill, tool model of technological integration provides a predictive model for classroom technology use, focusing on teacher attitude and pedagogy, and on evaluating integration based on teachers’ willingness, skills, and pedagogical practice as well as measuring teachers’ attitudes, skills, and access to tools (Knezek and Christensen 2016). A further model, the synthesis of qualitative data (SQD) model, explores the contextual influences that result in student teachers integrating technology rather than the attitude of the individuals (Tondeur, et al. 2012). The models for technology integration in education are critiqued in Tondeur, et al. 2021.

  • Davis, F. D. 1989. Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly 19.2: 319–340.

    DOI: 10.2307/249008Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This is the original Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). It has been applied to different contexts and empirically validated.

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  • Knezek, G., and R. Christensen. 2016. Extending the will, skill, tool model of technology integration: Adding pedagogy as a new model construct. Journal of Computing in Higher Education 28.3: 307–325.

    DOI: 10.1007/s12528-016-9120-2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The will, skill, tool model of technology integration was developed when computers were being introduced into schools. This later version adds pedagogy into the model to predict teacher use of computers in their practice.

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  • Mishra, P., and M. J. Koehler. 2006. Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record 108.6: 1017–1054.

    DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    TPaCK is a framework that was developed with the intention of identifying teacher knowledge required for successful integration of digital technologies into teaching practice while considering the complex, multifaceted, and situated nature of this knowledge. The framework has been used as a basis of professional learning for the digital teacher and as a basis for research. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

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  • Tondeur, J., J. van Braak, G. Sang, J. Voogt, P. Fisser, and A. Ottenbreit-Leftwich. 2012. Preparing pre-service teachers to integrate technology in education: A synthesis of qualitative evidence. Computers & Education 59.1: 134–144.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2011.10.009Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A model of conditions within initial teacher education institutions that contributes to student teacher technology integration was developed through a synthesis of qualitative literature. The SQD model is subsequently applied to research.

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  • Tondeur, J., D. Petko, R. Christensen, et al. 2021. Quality criteria for conceptual technology integration models in education: Bridging research and practice. Educational Technology Research and Development 1–22.

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    This article examines models of technology integration, identifies gaps in existing models, and suggests criteria that can be applied to evaluate the quality of models.

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  • Voogt, J., P. Fisser, N. Pareja Roblin, J. Tondeur, and J. van Braak. 2013. Technological pedagogical content knowledge—a review of the literature. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 29.2: 109–121.

    DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2012.00487.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this review of literature, the authors found different understandings of TPaCK and of technological knowledge, which impact on the way that TPaCK is measured.

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