Culturally Responsive Pedagogies

by

Susan C. Faircloth

• LAST REVIEWED: 29 July 2020
• LAST MODIFIED: 27 November 2013
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0010

Introduction

Historically, the academic performance of many culturally and linguistically diverse students has tended to lag behind that of their peers. This has been attributed by some as a failure of the educational system to meet these students’ academic, social, and emotional needs. Increasing diversity within the school-aged population demands that schools respond to the needs and abilities of these students. Central to these efforts is a commitment to the preparation, recruitment, and retention of a teaching force capable of acknowledging and respecting the unique learning abilities and needs of their students. Emerging in the1990s, the term “culturally responsive pedagogies” (CRP), often interchanged with the term “culturally relevant pedagogies,” has been used to describe the knowledge, skills, and dispositions characteristic of teachers who embrace the role of cultural and linguistic diversity within the teaching and learning environment. Teachers who engage in culturally responsive practices view their students’ cultural and linguistic diversity as strengths rather than deficits. Culturally responsive teachers build on their students’, and their families’/communities’ unique strengths as they work to develop effective educational practices for students from diverse backgrounds. Although hailed as a marker of effective teaching for culturally and linguistically diverse students, there is limited large-scale empirical evidence documenting the actual impact of CRP on students’ academic performance, leading some to question the utility of such practices. Given the highly contentious nature of the early-21st-century educational system it is imperative that increased research be conducted to document the impact of CRP on students’ academic experiences and subsequent outcomes.

General Overviews

In Ladson-Billings 1995a, the author, a leading proponent of culturally relevant or responsive pedagogies (CRP), articulated the theoretical underpinnings of CRP. This article is viewed as one of the seminal publications in the field of culturally responsive pedagogies. Since then, Ladson-Billings has continued to refine the theoretical underpinning and argument for the enactment of such teaching practices. This is best noted in Ladson-Billings 1995b, Ladson-Billings 2005 (originally published in 2002), and a decade later in Ladson-Billings 2007 which identified the essential elements of culturally responsive teaching. Although Ladson-Billings has been instrumental in the development and expansion of the field of CRP, it is important to note that a number of other scholars and practitioners have also written on this topic. For example, Morrison, et al. 2008 reviews the literature published since the formal emergence of CRP in the mid-1990s. The authors note both the strengths and limitations of the extant research based on CRPs.

• Ladson-Billings, Gloria. 1995a. Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal 47:465–491.

  DOI: 10.3102/00028312032003465Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Represents the author’s attempt to articulate a “theoretical model of culturally relevant pedagogy” (p. 469). She argues that the articulation of such a theory is an ethical and professional imperative for both researchers and teacher educators. This article builds on the author’s work with successful teachers of African American students.

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• Ladson-Billings, Gloria. 1995b. But that’s just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into Practice 34.3: 159–165.

  DOI: 10.1080/00405849509543675Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Identifies three essential characteristics of culturally relevant pedagogy. These include: emphasis on academic success, ability and willingness to support and include students’ culture and cultural knowledge in the classroom, and fostering of critical consciousness (i.e., ongoing critique of societal conditions that serve to promote and sustain inequalities) among students.

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• Ladson-Billings, Gloria. 2005. Culturally relevant teaching: The key to making multicultural education work. In Research and multi-cultural education: From the margins to the mainstream. Edited by Carl A. Grant, 102–118. Bristol, PA: Falmer.

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  Originally published in 2002. Ladson-Billings argues that multicultural education alone is not sufficient to meet the needs of students from diverse backgrounds. Instead, she argues that teachers must continue to examine their personal and professional beliefs and practices as they relate to the teaching of diverse students. In doing so, teachers can teach all students more effectively.

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• Ladson-Billings, Gloria. 2007. Culturally relevant teaching: Theory and practice. In Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives. 6th ed. Edited by James A. Banks and Cherry A. McGee Banks, 221–245. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

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  Identifies three elements of culturally relevant teaching: emphasis on student achievement; cultural competence (i.e., awareness and understanding of the cultural nuances of students); and the teacher’s ability and willingness to engage students in analyzing and responding to social issues that impact them, their communities, and their schools.

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• Morrison, Kristan A., Holly H. Robbins, and Dana Gregory Rose. 2008. Operationalizing culturally relevant pedagogy: A synthesis of classroom-based research. Equity and Excellence in Education 41:433–435.

  DOI: 10.1080/10665680802400006Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Offers a review of the literature (since 1995) published on the implementation of culturally relevant teaching practices. As the authors point out, a limitation of these studies is their focus on homogenous groupings of students within the classroom.

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The Importance of CRP

Historically, students from racial, ethnic, and linguistic minority groups have been marginalized by the educational system. In fact, education has often been used as a means of acculturating and assimilating students into the mainstream dominant culture. As outlined in Freire 2000, the design and delivery of culturally responsive teaching and learning practices offers a way in which to better meet the educational and cultural needs of students, while empowering them to fight back against oppressive forces within their schools and communities.

• Freire, Paulo. 2000. Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.

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  Offers a critique of the dominant forces that have served to oppress and marginalize the masses. Through this book, Freire charges historically marginalized groups to rise up against these oppressive forces and to envision and enact a new and self-determined existence for themselves and their communities. Through this process, individuals and groups become more involved, active and meaningful co-constructors of their own educational experiences.

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Globalization and CRP

Since its emergence, the adoption and use of Culturally Responsive Pedagogies has experienced a widespread appeal across the globe. At least two national reports, one in New Zealand (Bishop, et al. 2007) and another in the United States (Villegas 1991), have addressed emergent trends in the implementation of such teaching practices. For example, Bishop, et al. 2007 seeks to identify examples of the pedagogy of relationship in practice within the secondary school classroom in New Zealand. This report was specifically interested in Māori (Indigenous) students. In contrast, Villegas 1991 focuses on African Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians within the United States. While broad in scope, this report failed to specifically address Asian/Pacific Islander, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian students.

• Bishop, Russell, Mere Berryman, Tom Cavanagh, and Lani Teddy. 2007. Te Kōtahitanga Phase 3—Whānaungatanga: Establishing a culturally responsive pedagogy of relations in mainstream secondary school classrooms. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education.

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  Reports the results of a study involving twelve secondary schools in New Zealand. The study included a mixture of qualitative and quantitative data; described the characteristics of a pedagogy of relationship as based on a sharing of power between students and teachers; incorporating, respecting and valuing students’ culture(s) in the teaching and learning process; integrally connecting the teaching and learning process to students, their families, and communities; and a universal commitment to students’ success.

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• Villegas, Ana M. 1991. Culturally responsive pedagogy for the 1990s and beyond. Trends and Issues Paper 6. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education.

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  Villegas reviews the characteristics of culturally responsive pedagogy and discussed implications for new teacher assessment. The author found that teachers who engage in culturally responsive pedagogies have high expectations for students, are actively involved in student learning, and recognize the importance and impact of their work on student achievement.

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Students and Teachers

There is an extensive body of qualitative and quantitative research, reports, and opinion pieces on the topic of culturally responsive/relevant pedagogies. Although a review of each of these publications is beyond the scope of this article, it is important to note that the bulk of publications focused on students and teachers at the elementary and secondary school level can be grouped into a number of categories including: Power Dynamics, African American Students, Indigenous Students, Hispanic and Latino/a Students, Students Identified as English Language Learners, Exceptional Children, and Teacher Preparation and Professional Development.

Teaching Resources

As noted in Richards, et al. 2007 (cited under Exceptional Children), in addition to peer-reviewed journal articles, books, and book chapters, a number of organizations have been developed to address the needs of an increasingly diverse student population. Although these sites are focused more broadly on multicultural education and issues of diversity within schools, they offer recommendations for designing and implementing culturally responsive teaching and learning practices within the K–12 arena. The Alaska Native Knowledge Network provides resources for individuals and organizations involved in the education of Alaska Native students. Although no longer funded, the Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence, served as a clearinghouse for resources on diversity and education. Materials are still available on the center’s website. Originally funded by the US Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, in collaboration with the University of Colorado at Denver and Arizona State University, the National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCREST) focused specifically on the education of diverse students with special educational needs. The Northwest Regional Education Laboratory offers technical assistance and other resources for educators working with American Indian and Alaska Native students. The remaining resources, Rethinking Schools and Culturally Responsive Teaching offer resources specifically related to culturally responsive teaching. Finally Teaching Tolerance offers resources aimed at promoting issues of social justice and equity for students from racially, ethnically and culturally diverse backgrounds. Each of these resources is described in brief below.

• Alaska Native Knowledge Network.

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  Housed at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, the Alaska Native Knowledge Network offers a wealth of information and resources regarding the teaching of Alaska Native students, as well as Alaska Native focused academic content and cultural ways of knowing, learning, and doing.

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• Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence.

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  Housed at the University of California Berkeley Graduate School of Education, the Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence (CREDE) has a long history of serving as a clearinghouse for a wide variety of research and publications on topics related to diversity and education. An archive of this center’s work is available on the CREDE website.

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• Culturally Responsive Teaching.

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  Operated by The Education Alliance at Brown University, this website offers information on culturally responsive teaching practices at the K–12 level. The goal of the alliance is to utilize empirical research to effect positive change at the school and district level.

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• National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems.

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  NCCREST served as a clearinghouse for research and technical assistance on the use of culturally responsive practices, as a means of reducing the disproportionate representation of racially/ethnically diverse students in special education programs and services. Although no longer operated as a stand-alone center, NCCREST’s archives are maintained online. The principles of NCCREST frame the work of the Equity Alliance at Arizona State University, which aims to improve educational conditions and outcomes for a wide array of students, including those with disabilities.

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• Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.

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  The Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory is a federally funded technical assistance center serving the northwest region of the United States. Many of its services are geared toward American Indians and Alaska Natives. Of note is the 2003 issue of Teacher Education (“Ways of Knowing: Native Knowledge and Western Science”), focusing on Indigenous ways of knowing as they relate to the teaching of math and science. This publication is available online.

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• Rethinking Schools.

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  Operated as a nonprofit, volunteer organization, this website serves as a clearinghouse for information related to culturally responsive teaching practices. In addition to its website, this organization publishes a practitioner oriented magazine titled Rethinking Schools.

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• Teaching Tolerance.

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  Sponsored by the Southern Poverty Law Center, Teaching Tolerance is an online and print magazine addressing issues of social justice and equity for students and teachers across the nation.

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Debate

Although hailed by many as a means of achieving more equitable education for culturally and linguistically diverse students, culturally responsive pedagogies have encountered a number of challenges. As outlined below, these challenges are often socio-political in nature.

Persisting in the Face of Challenges

As previously referenced, the field of culturally responsive pedagogies was born out of the need to address the unique cultural, linguistic, social, emotional, and academic needs of students in elementary and secondary schools. As reiterated in Delpit 1988, Delpit 1986, and Moll and González 2004, culturally responsive pedagogies are unique in that they embrace the notion of caring and respectful relationships between teachers and students. CRP also recognizes and values the wealth of knowledge and experiences students, their families and communities offer to the teaching and learning process. While some would argue that this approach has been successful, others would argue that there is an ongoing need for diversity in both the teacher ranks and the knowledge, skills, dispositions, and practices teachers embody as they strive to work with an increasingly diverse student population. As the authors below point out this can be difficult, and at times, potentially risky work. This work becomes even more difficult in the face of increasing pressures to standardize the curriculum and respond to local, state, and national accountability efforts that are often devoid of culturally responsive philosophies or practices. As indicated in the introduction, increased empirical research is needed to document the impact of CRP on student academic achievement. An example of such research is presented in Howard and Terry 2011. This study found that African American students who received culturally relevant instruction had high rates of graduation and college attendance. An earlier publication by Ladson-Billings 2009 also found that teachers who engaged in culturally relevant teaching practices contributed to the academic success of their students. For these teachers, “cultural competence was an important source of connection between the teachers and their students. They believed it was important that the students were well grounded in their own culture as a prerequisite to becoming versed in what might be considered mainstream culture” (p. xi).

• Delpit, Lisa D. 1986. Skills and other dilemmas of a progressive black educator. Harvard Educational Review 56.4: 379–385.

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  Delpit offers a personal account of dilemmas she encountered as an African American teacher. She focuses on the distinction between process and skills-oriented instructional practices and the dilemmas encountered when teachers are encouraged to embrace teaching practices that run counter to their own personal beliefs about “good” or effective teaching.

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• Delpit, Lisa D. 1988. The silenced dialogue: Power and pedagogy in educating other people’s children. Harvard Educational Review 59.3: 280–298.

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  Written in response to an earlier article (Delpit 1986), Delpit 1988 addresses the implicit and explicit roles of power in helping to shape relationships and interactions between students and teachers. Delpit argues that educational decisions and the power to make these decisions rarely rests in the hands of individuals from racially, culturally, linguistically, and socioeconomically diverse groups.

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• Howard, Tyrone C., and Clarence L. Terry Sr. 2011. Culturally responsive pedagogy for African American students: Promising programs and practices for enhanced academic performance. Teaching Education 22.4: 345–362.

  DOI: 10.1080/10476210.2011.608424Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Drawing on the results of a multi-year study, Howard and Terry offer empirical evidence of the impact of culturally responsive practices on the academic achievement, high school graduation, and college attendance of African American students.

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• Ladson-Billings, Gloria. 2009. The dream-keepers: Successful teachers of African American children. San Francisco: Wiley.

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  Utilizing the stories of eight “exemplar” teachers, Ladson-Billings describes characteristics of effective teachers of African American students. Foremost among these characteristics is cultural competence. While presenting these exemplars, Ladson-Bilings also cautions the reader against the notion of a quick fix or one-size-fits-all model of effective teaching for African American students.

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• Moll, Luis C., and Norma González. 2004. Engaging life: A funds-of-knowledge approach to multicultural education. In Handbook of research on multicultural education. 2d ed. Edited by James A. Banks and Cherry A. M. Banks, 699–715. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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  Moll and González expound upon the funds-of-knowledge approach, through which students’ cultural knowledge and experiences are viewed as strengths rather than deficits. They identify two ways in which this approach can be used to foster culturally responsive teaching and learning practices: (1) incorporating children’s and families cultural and experiential knowledge into the teaching and learning process and (2) increasing teachers’ understanding and appreciation of diversity.

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