Education Reading Education
by
G. Reid Lyon, Timothy Odegard
  • LAST REVIEWED: 29 July 2020
  • LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011
  • DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0030

Introduction

Reading is defined by a range of different theoretical fields, including education, linguistics, psychology, and cognitive science. In general, there is agreement across definitions that learning to read is a lengthy and complex developmental cognitive process where the act of reading words accurately and fluently leads to an understanding of a written linguistic message. The term literacy typically conveys a broader meaning. For example, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines literacy as the “ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. . . .” From a scientific perspective, it is clear that reading skills required for comprehension develop in parallel with oral language. However, in contrast to listening and speaking abilities, which develop naturally, reading skills are acquired and must be taught. There is widespread agreement that the ultimate goals of reading are to comprehend information presented in print for the purposes of lifelong learning, to communicate thoughts and ideas with others, and to gain opportunities for educational, occupational, and economic success. The citations included in this entry lead a user to works that provide a comprehensive examination of theoretical, conceptual, and scientific, cultural, and ideological perspectives relevant to fields of reading in general and that inform teacher preparation, instructional practices, and education policy in particular. The references have been selected on the basis of their impact on reading education practices and education policy, their clarity, and their usefulness in representing multiple perspectives.

General Overviews

The following classic and contemporary works provide an introduction to what is currently known about reading development, reading difficulties, and reading instruction. An emphasis is placed on identifying resources that are comprehensive and inclusive of a wide range of perspectives that have influenced the reading field. The critical need for skilled reading in our society was brought to the public’s attention in Anderson, et al. 1985, a classic contribution that examined the status of research knowledge relevant to reading development and instruction and the status of the United States’ efforts to ensure reading proficiency for all. This book stimulated extensive research to better understand reading development and difficulties. For example, in a follow-up to the Anderson report, Adams 1990 provided a seminal and eloquent review of the development of the reading process and the number of abilities necessary for proficient reading. Users may find that the National Academy of Sciences’ consensus report, “Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children” (Snow, et al. 1998), extends Adams’s contribution by providing a valuable multiperspective analysis of the role that language, cognition, environment, and instruction play in typical and atypical reading development. Complementing this consensus report is the congressionally mandated National Reading Panels (NRP) (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development 2000) meta-analytic review of the effectiveness of different instructional reading methods, programs, and strategies. The NRP report provides the first evidence-based exploration of what works and does not work in reading education. For those interested in examining the range of research perspectives and methods applied to the study of reading, the compilation Kamil, et al. 2010 is an authoritative and comprehensive work. The traditionally understudied topic of reading comprehension receives an outstanding review in Rand Study Group 2002 in an analysis of the status of what is known, providing recommendations for research directions. For those interested in the process of translating research into practice, the edited text McCardle and Chhabra 2004 does a masterful job of illuminating how scientific evidence has informed current reading policy and reading education. For users interested in critical issues surrounding the development of literacy skills in second-language learners, the Report of the National Literacy Panel, August and Shanahan 2006, supported by the US Department of Education, may be of keen interest.

  • Adams, M. J. 1990. Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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    One of the most frequently cited, provocative, and influential works in the reading field, which introduces scientific evidence to account for the ways in which children acquire proficient reading skills.

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  • Anderson, R. C., E. H. Hiebert, J. A. Scott, and I. A. G. Wilkinson. 1985. Becoming a nation of readers: The report of the Commission on Reading. Champaign: Center for the Study of Reading, Univ. of Illinois.

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    Under the auspices of the National Academy of Education, the Center for the Study of Reading produced this important report on the status of research and instructional practice in reading education.

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  • August, Diane D., and T. Shanahan. 2006. Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

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    An important and highly influential report created for the US Department of Education’s Institute of Educational Sciences to identify, assess, and synthesize research on the education of language-minority children and youth according to the degree of literacy they have acquired.

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  • Kamil, M. L., P. D. Pearson, E. R. Moje, and P. Aflerback, eds. 2010. Handbook of reading research. Vol. 4. New York: Routledge.

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    This volume includes comprehensive research reviews of the full range of reading topics, conducted by scholars from multiple disciplines and perspectives. This work should be required reading for those seeking a thorough understanding of the educational, scientific, political, and policy factors that influence the direction of current reading policy and instruction today.

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  • McCardle, P., and Chhabra, V. 2004. The voice of evidence in reading research. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

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    Comprehensive analysis of the scientific evidence relevant to reading development, reading difficulties, and reading instruction. Breaks new ground by integrating research on policy development, requirements for scientific research in reading, and the conditions under which reading development is best supported.

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  • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). 2000. Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. 2 vols. NIH Publication 00-4769. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

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    The first congressionally mandated scientific analysis of the effectiveness of different instructional methods and approaches to the teaching of reading, which has had a profound effect on reading research, professional development, reading education, and state and federal education policy.

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  • Rand Study Group. 2002. Reading for understanding: Toward an R&D program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.

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    Extensive analysis of what is currently known about reading comprehension and the instructional strategies that support its development. This volume breaks significant new ground in identifying research needs. The group was chaired by Catherine E. Snow.

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  • Snow, C., M. Burns, and P. Griffin, eds. 1998. Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy.

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    A seminal consensus report from the National Academy of Sciences, funded by the US Office of Education and the National Institutes of Health, which provides an extensive treatment of the developmental reading process and promising instructional practices.

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Textbooks

The following contemporary textbooks are useful for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses in language and reading development; reading instruction, early literacy research and practice; learning disabilities and dyslexia; the neurobiology of reading; literacy development in second-language learners; and education policy. These textbooks have been highlighted because of their comprehensive and authoritative coverage of topics essential to understanding the landscape of reading education in America. For those interested in the basic science explicating the relationship of language development to reading acquisition, a thorough and cogent analysis is offered in McGuinness 2005. Stahl and McKenna 2006 provides an outstanding examination of the developmental complexity of reading abilities and the research that most reliably identifies evidence-based instructional practices. Neuman and Dickinson 2005 adds the same comprehensive and thoughtful analysis of current findings in early literacy research, with an eye toward implementing effective early identification and intervention practices. Both undergraduate and graduate students will find the compilation Neuman 2008, which addresses the impact of poverty on reading development, thought provoking and compelling. While somewhat dated, Pressley 1998, a highly referenced text on effective literacy instruction, is essential reading for students considering a teaching career or currently engaged in fostering reading skills with a wide range of students. For those interested in the origins of dyslexia and other learning disabilities, detailed scientific coverage and explanations of dyslexia and other learning disabilities, as well as effective early intervention and remediation strategies, are offered in Fletcher, et al. 2007. Helping English-language learners acquire reading proficiency is one of the most critical tasks facing educators today, and treatment of the subject in Gunderson 2009 will provide advanced undergraduate and graduate students a highly informative resource.

  • Fletcher, J. M., G. R. Lyon, L. Fuchs, and M. Barnes. 2007. Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention. New York: Guilford.

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    This text provides a historical and contemporary examination of the scientific research data converging on the etiology, as well as cognitive, behavioral, neurobiological, and social factors responsible for dyslexia and other learning disabilities, with additional analysis of effectiveness data on several instructional and intervention programs focused on reading.

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  • Gunderson, L. 2009. ESL (ELL) literacy instruction: A guidebook to theory and practice. 2d ed. New York: Routledge.

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    Given the continual increase in the number of non-English-speaking children in Americas schools, this text presents timely and critical research information and practical recommendations to identify and implement effective literacy instruction to develop English-language listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills among English Language Learner (ELL) students.

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  • Hess, F. M., ed. 2008. When research matters: How scholarship influences education policy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

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    This volume makes a significant contribution to our understanding of the political and ideological barriers that limit the development of research-based education policies and the challenges that must be addressed to effectively utilize trustworthy research findings in the development and implementation of education policy.

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  • McGuinness, Diane. 2005. Language development and learning to read: The scientific study of how language development affects reading skill. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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    This well-written and meticulously researched volume competently takes on the task of explaining why some children learn to read with ease while others struggle because of individual differences in cognitive, linguistic, and perceptual abilities.

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  • Neuman, S. B., ed. 2008. Educating the other America: Top experts tackle poverty, literacy, and achievement in our schools. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

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    This compilation of authoritative and highly readable chapters offers compelling insights into the complex effects of poverty on children’s reading development, academic achievement, social development, and health outcomes.

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  • Neuman, S. B., and D. K. Dickinson, eds. 2005. Handbook of early literacy research. Vol. 2. 2d ed. New York: Guilford.

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    This important contribution offers a comprehensive analysis of the research and current educational practices in early literacy development.

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  • Pressley, M. 1998. Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching. New York: Guilford.

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    This is a thoughtful and theoretically balanced text that underscores the importance of integrating reading instructional methods and approaches to meet the needs of individual students.

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  • Stahl, K. A., and M. C. McKenna, eds. 2006. Reading research at work: Foundations of effective practice. New York: Guilford.

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    This edited volume is composed of papers by eminent scientists, who explain the extent to which scientific research in phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension has influenced current assessment and instructional reading practices.

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Data Sets and Websites

Several data sets provide federal and statewide data relevant to reading proficiency from pre-kindergarten through the twelfth grade. Most of these data sets include analyses of overall reading achievement and growth, and subgroup-specific information on reading achievement disaggregated by age, grade, race, ethnicity, school location, and other variables. These resources, invaluable to researchers and policymakers, provide insight into reading growth trends, helping to determine the impact of specific national and state reading initiatives on the development of reading proficiency, and to better understand the contextual factors associated with positive reading gains in some states, schools, and districts and limited to no gains in others. A critically important and fundamental source for reading proficiency and growth data is provided by the US Department of Education’s National Center for Educational Statistics. The Education Trust is a superb resource for accessing data and summary reports on statewide reading initiatives, assessing the impact of education policies on reading proficiency across all grade levels and demographic groups, and providing free PowerPoint presentations depicting these data. The Alliance for Excellent Education offers the most comprehensive repository of data specific to adolescent literacy scores, to the relationship between limited reading proficiency and high-school graduation rates, and to the impact of limited reading skills on individual educational, social, economic, and health outcomes. In addition, for users seeking comprehensive sources to research on adolescent literacy, Moore 2008 has provided the reading field with the most-current resources available. To access websites and databases pertaining to educational trends and outcomes, including reading achievement, users may find the State Department of Education Datasets via Education Resource Organizations Directory. Users are encouraged to visit the International Reading Association website for substantial resources relevant to all aspects of the reading field. Reading Rockets is a comprehensive resource updated daily that provides users with information and links to numerous websites addressing reading development, reading difficulties, and reading instruction.

Journals

Keeping abreast of the rapidly expanding knowledge base in reading development, reading difficulties, and effective educational approaches is a formidable task. Because researchers and practitioners differ in their research training and background, knowledge dissemination for different audiences adds additional challenges. To accommodate these differences, this section identifies journals that serve as outlets for original scholarly works as well as publications dedicated to the translation of scientific information into instructional recommendations for the practitioner. The journals cited represent only a fraction of the number of archival publications available and have been selected on the basis of their citations in the literature and their reputation for rigor. For reports of original research, substantive reviews of research relevant to reading development, and empirically based treatments of effective evidence-based practices, users should consult both the Reading Research Quarterly and Scientific Studies in Reading. A highly appreciated outlet both for original empirical and theoretical studies, the American Educational Research Journal publishes articles on significant reading topics that are relevant to numerous academic disciplines. The Journal of Educational Psychology is a highly respected outlet for basic psychological research on a variety of educational topics, with frequent articles devoted to scientific and theoretical examinations of reading and reading-related topics. An outstanding journal that presents practical evidence-based assessment and instructional recommendations for practitioners is the Reading Teacher. Frequently cited original research reports and reviews of the literature specific to early literacy are presented in the Journal of Early Childhood Literacy. For users seeking information on dyslexia, the Annals of Dyslexia is a highly respected and outstanding source for multidisciplinary reports relevant to etiological factors in dyslexia, assessment of reading capabilities, and data-based instructional strategies of interest both to researchers and practitioners.

  • American Educational Research Journal.

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    Published in print and online four times per year by Sage. Articles in this journal have made significant contributions to the research literature in education writ large; many compelling articles are relevant to reading development and reading instruction. First published in 1964.

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  • Annals of Dyslexia.

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    Published in print and online twice a year by Springer in partnership with the International Dyslexia Association. Journal articles present highly significant, original, theoretically based research on the etiology, developmental course, and educational outcomes for children and adults with dyslexia. These articles have made enormous contributions to the understanding of reading difficulties and the most-effective interventions to overcome them. First published in 1982.

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  • Journal of Early Childhood Literacy.

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    Published in print and online four times a year by Sage. This is a frequently cited journal, highly respected for its scholarly coverage of relationships among language and cognitive development, family and economic variables, access to high-quality preschool education, and the acquisition of early literacy skills. First published in 2001.

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  • Journal of Educational Psychology.

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    Published in print and online four times a year by Sage in partnership with the American Psychological Association. This outlet, primarily engaged in publishing original scholarly research grounded in the psychology of learning and rigorous research designs and methods, has provided the research community in reading with many of the most significant works that have advanced knowledge in the field.

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  • Reading Research Quarterly.

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    Published in print and online four times each year by the International Reading Association, the largest professional organization dedicated to disseminating information to reading researchers, reading specialists, and education policymakers, among other professionals. This is a premier journal known for its rigorous peer review, timely presentation of new research findings, and the authoritative quality of its contributors. First published in 1965.

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  • Reading Teacher.

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    Published in print and online eight times per year by the International Reading Association. This premier and most frequently read education journal provides practical information authored by teachers and administrators in school and classroom settings. The journal is known for articles that translate current research findings into effective practices. Published since 1951.

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  • Scientific Studies in Reading.

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    Published in print and online six times per year by Routledge in association with the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading. Known for its scientific quality, this relatively new journal is now one of the most frequently cited by researchers and policymakers. First published in 1997.

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Reading Development

The ability to understand what is read depends on the development and integration of numerous cognitive and linguistic subskills. Significant advances in understanding the process of learning to read have been made during the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century, which have led to improvements in reading assessment and instruction. For a masterful review of current major scientific discoveries relevant to these subskills, users are encouraged to read Snowling and Hulme 2007. The edited work Kamil, et al. 2011 is an excellent source to consult for a wide range of perspectives on the development of reading competencies. August and Shanahan 2006 provides a superb compilation of chapters that offer reviews and analysis on what is known about the development of literacy skills among children whose first language is not English. A scholarly treatment of the influence of behavior and biology on reading development is provided in Wagner, et al. 2009. Paris 2005 presents compelling and novel insights on the developmental reading process, which challenge some of the earlier conclusions about reading acquisition. Juel 1988, a classic study that continues to provide an authoritative and accurate account of the ability to predict fourth-grade reading proficiency from first-grade reading scores, may be helpful to readers interested in predictions of reading development over time.

  • August, D., and T. Shanahan, eds. 2006. Developing literacy in a second language: Report of the National Literacy Panel on language-minority children and youth. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

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    A leading authoritative and well-written compilation of papers delineating what is currently known about the development of reading skills and other literacy abilities among Second Language Learners.

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  • Juel, C. 1988. Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology 80.4: 437–447.

    DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.437Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A frequently cited, classic work that established the fact that a limited degree of reading development during the first grade negatively affects subsequent reading proficiency in grades two through four—a finding that continues to inform research directions today. This longitudinal study was one of the first to examine reading growth over time and to identify significant factors that predict reading failure.

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  • Kamil, M. L., P. D. Pearson, E. R. Moje, and P. Aflerback, eds. 2011. Handbook of reading research. Vol. 4. New York: Routledge.

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    This volume includes comprehensive research reviews of the full range of reading topics, written by scholars from multiple disciplines and perspectives. This work should be required reading for those interested in a thorough understanding of the educational, scientific, political, and policy factors that influence the direction of current reading policy and instruction. E-book.

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  • Morrow, L. M., and E. B. Asbury. 2001. Literacy activities for early childhood classrooms: Literacy development in the early years: Helping children read and write. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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    This outstanding contribution provides an enduring scholarly review of the developmental trajectory of reading skills in emerging young readers.

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  • Paris, S. G. 2005. Reinterpreting the development of reading skills. Reading Research Quarterly 40.2: 184–202.

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    A compelling, evidence-based reexamination of theoretical concepts and conclusions from research, leading to a reformulation of the significant factors involved in reading development.

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  • Snowling, M. J., and C. J. Hulme. 2007. The science of reading: A handbook. Blackwell Handbooks of Developmental Psychology. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

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    A superb, scholarly review of major theories of reading development, reading processes, and biological foundations essential for reading proficiency.

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  • Wagner, R., C. Schatschneider, and C. Pythian-Sence. 2009. Beyond decoding: The behavioral and biological foundations of reading comprehension. New York: Guilford.

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    Outstanding analysis and summary of how individual differences in the behavioral and biological foundations of cognitive and linguistic skills influence the development of essential reading comprehension abilities.

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Reading Difficulties

In 2010, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), cited above, reported that 34 percent of fourth-grade children read below the basic level. In essence, this means these youngsters had difficulty reading and understanding a simple children’s book. Only 6 to 10 percent of these children have dyslexia. The remainder read poorly due to a lack of exposure to language and literacy interactions from birth to school entry and inadequate instruction. This high rate of reading failure is not the result of a lack of effective reading instructional programs, approaches, and strategies; rather, the problem lies primarily in very limited to no implementation of the effective strategies in schools and classrooms. For review of these issues, users are referred to Lyon, et al. 2001. To gain a better understanding of how economic disadvantage leads to reading difficulties, the work in Snow, et al. 1998 provides an outstanding coverage of the issue. Blaunstein and Lyon 2006 offers a compilation of chapters addressing a range of important topics on reading difficulties that concern teachers, parents, and school administrators. Those interested in current definitions of dyslexia, as well as in its prevalence, etiology, and recommended interventions, are encouraged to review Lyon, et al. 2007.

  • Blaunstein, P., and G. R. Lyon. 2006. Why kids can’t read: Challenging the status quo in education. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

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    Contributors to this edited text include teachers, school principals, parents, neuroscientists, and policymakers, providing readers with multiple perspectives that will engage experts as well as nonscientists in a clear and lucid manner.

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  • Das, J. P. 2009. Reading difficulties and dyslexia: An interpretation for teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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    This text, designed specifically for teachers, provides a practical guide to understanding the assessment and instructional needs of students with reading difficulties and dyslexia.

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  • Lyon, G. R., J. M. Fletcher, and S. E. Shaywitz, et al. 2001. Learning disabilities: An evidence-based conceptualization. In Rethinking special education for a new century. Edited by Chester E. Finn, Andrew J. Rotherham, and Charles R. Hokanson, 259–287. Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Foundation.

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    This chapter provides an overview of the relationship among disadvantage, neurobiological status, inadequate instruction, and reading difficulties and dyslexia.

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  • Lyon, G. R., S. Shaywitz, and B. Shaywitz. 2007. Dyslexia and specific reading disabilities. In Nelson textbook of pediatrics. 18th ed. Edited by R. Kliegman, R. Behrman, H. Jenson, and B. Stanton, 150–152. Philadelphia: Saunders.

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    This work is a scientific review of what is currently known about the origins, characteristics, and developmental course of dyslexia; written for medical professionals.

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  • Pugh, K., and P. McCardle, eds. 2009. How children learn to read: Current issues and new directions in the integration of cognition, neurobiology and genetics of reading and dyslexia research and practice. Extraordinary Brain. London: Psychology Press.

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    This superbly crafted volume, with chapters provided by the authoritative reading experts in the field today, serves as an excellent resource for reading scientists.

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  • Snow, C., M. Burns, and P. Griffin, eds. 1998. Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy.

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    A seminal consensus report from the National Academy of Sciences and funded by the US Office of Education and the National Institutes of Health, which provides both extensive treatment of the developmental reading process and promising instructional practices.

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Reading Instruction

Because of the number of children with difficulties learning to read, the selection and implementation of effective teaching practices are nonnegotiable. What is clear is that the most-beneficial instructional approaches are based on the current research knowledge on reading development. For users seeking a review of research on reading instruction from multiple perspectives, Kamil, et al. 2010 is an outstanding source. The complexity of reading instruction is explained in a seminal work, Moats 1999, which has had a significant impact both on instructional practices and education policy. For users interested in a scientific review of cognitive, linguistic, and neurobiological factors that inform reading instruction, Rayner, et al. 2001 is highly recommended for researchers and graduate students. Vaughn and Linan-Thompson 2007, a recent text, offers outstanding practical assessment and instructional information for reading teachers serving English Language Learners. For students and researchers in education who are seeking research relevant to reading instruction of adolescents, Wood and Blanton 2009 offers an outstanding contribution. Response to Intervention (RTI) models in use in the majority of schools nationwide in the early 21st century are explained in a highly informative edited text, Fuchs, et al. 2008, which should provide practitioners with a powerful guide to the implementation of RTI models.

  • Fuchs, D., L. Fuchs, and S. Vaughn, eds. 2008. Response to intervention: A framework for reading educators. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

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    This edited volume provides a research-based and practical summary of the critical factors involved in the implementation of RTI models in complex educational settings; there is emphasis on the selection of assessment and instructional strategies and the use of assessment data to help teachers differentiate instruction for individual students.

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  • Kamil, M. L., P. D. Pearson, E. R. Moje, and P. Aflerback, eds. 2010. Handbook of reading research. Vol. 4. New York: Routledge.

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    This volume includes comprehensive research reviews of the full range of reading topics, conducted by scholars from multiple disciplines and perspectives. This work should be required reading for those in need of a thorough understanding of the educational, scientific, political, and policy factors that influence the direction of current reading policy and instruction today.

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  • Moats, L. 1999. Teaching reading is rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do. Washington, DC: American Federation of Teachers.

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    This work has now become a classic in the reading field. It has been highly influential in shaping the design and content of reading courses offered in many universities and has served to inform teachers, school administrators, and those developing education policy about the complexity of reading instruction.

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  • Rayner, K., B. R. Foorman, C. A. Perfetti, D. Pesetsky, and M. S. Seidenberg. 2001. How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 2.2: 31–74.

    DOI: 10.1111/1529-1006.00004Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This highly referenced work, written by five of the most highly respected reading scientists in the country, is essential reading for graduate students seeking an understanding of the impact of multidisciplinary research on current knowledge about reading.

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  • Vaughn, S., and S. Linan-Thompson. 2007. Research-based methods of reading instruction for English Language Learners, grades K–4. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

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    This is an excellent text both for undergraduate and graduate students in education who are interested in the most-effective instructional methodologies for students whose first language is not English.

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  • Wood, K. D., and W. E. Blanton, eds. 2009. Literacy instruction for adolescents: Research based practice. New York: Guilford.

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    This timely work provides a much-needed scholarly treatment of current knowledge in the assessment and instruction of adolescents from a wide range of backgrounds who struggle with reading; it also offers new information relevant to effective practices both for English-speaking students and Second Language Learners.

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Neurobiology and Genetics

Recent advances in neuroimaging and behavioral and molecular genetics have contributed to an initial understanding of the biological foundations of reading development and disorders. The works cited in this section are recommended primarily for advanced graduate students and researchers in neuroscience who are interested in the application of neuroimaging and genetic methods to the study of reading. Users seeking current information about the application of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to identify neurophysiological systems involved in reading are referred to Shaywitz, et al. 2006 and Mencl, et al. 2009. Katz, et al. 2005 provides important data on the developmental relationships between neurobiological development and reading acquisition. For those interested in recent studies finding changes in brain systems during and following effective reading interventions, Odegard, et al. 2008 is a valuable source. For current information relevant to genetic research with dyslexic children, users are encouraged to consult Pennington and Olson 2005.

  • Katz, L., C. Lee, and W. Tabor, et al. 2005. Behavioral and neurobiological effects of printed word repetition in lexical decision and naming. Neuropsychologia 43.14: 2068–2083.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.03.022Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article presents compelling data linking the development of cognitive and linguistic skill to neurobiological outcomes while children learn to read and write. Available online to subscribers.

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  • Mencl, W. E., S. J. Frost, and K. R. Pugh. 2009. Tools for multimodal imaging. In Helping children learn to read: Current issues and new directions in the integration of cognition, neurobiology and genetics of reading and dyslexia research and practice. Edited by P. McCardle and K. Pugh, 89–100. Extraordinary Brain. New York: Psychology Press.

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    An outstanding review of the range of neuroimaging technologies that are useful for the study of brain–behavior relationships in children.

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  • Odegard, T. N., J. Ring, S. Smith, J. Biggan, and J. Black. 2008. Differentiating the neural response to intervention in children with developmental dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia 58.1: 1–14.

    DOI: 10.1007/s11881-008-0014-5Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A compelling study finding neurophysiologic changes in brain function among dyslexic children undergoing effective instruction. Available online to subscribers.

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  • Pennington, B. F., and R. K. Olson. 2005. The genetics of dyslexia. In The science of reading: A handbook. Edited by M. J. Snowling and C. Hulme, 453–472. Blackwell handbooks of developmental psychology. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

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    This chapter offers a critical review of decades of research investigating the application of molecular and behavioral genetic methods to the study of dyslexia in children and adults.

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  • Shaywitz, B. A., G. R. Lyon, and S. E. Shaywitz. 2006. The role of functional magnetic resonance imaging in understanding reading and dyslexia. Developmental Neuropsychology 30.1: 613–632.

    DOI: 10.1207/s15326942dn3001_5Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article presents an analysis of how the inclusion of neuroimaging modalities in studies of dyslexia has contributed significantly to the understanding of neural development in general, and of dyslexia in particular.

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Professional Development

As evidence mounts that reading development is fostered by expert instruction in phoneme awareness, phonics, reading fluency, and reading comprehension strategies, the need for informed instruction for the millions of children with insufficient reading skills is an increasingly urgent problem. Several recent studies and surveys of teacher knowledge about reading development and difficulties indicate that many teachers are underprepared to teach reading. Walsh, et al. 2006 offers a groundbreaking report on the status of reading-teacher preparation across the nation, which should be required reading for teachers, university professors, researchers, and policymakers. Snow, et al. 2005 provides a thoughtful analysis of the concerns about and solutions for effective preparation of teachers. For users interested in multiple perspectives on the preparation of teachers from a range of content areas, Bransford and Darling-Hammond 2005 is a highly informative volume. Bean, et al. 2010 offers the field a current update on professional preparation standards for reading teachers. Chard 2004 presents users with a concise summary that details the necessity of building programs to prepare teachers for reading science—a book that will be highly useful to researchers, teachers in training, and teachers in the classroom. Users are encouraged to review the compilation of papers in Joshi and Cunningham 2009 on current teacher knowledge about reading instruction and the preparation of reading teachers. A fascinating paper, Cantrell and Hughes 2008, which examines opportunities for professional development for teachers of adolescents in content-area classrooms, should be useful both for researchers and teachers.

  • Bean, R. N., N. Heisey, and C. M. Roller, eds. 2010. Preparing reading professionals. 2d ed. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

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    This timely edited volume presents authoritative journal articles, book chapters, and related information that align teacher-preparation competencies with reading standards.

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  • Bransford, J. D., and L. Darling-Hammond. 2005. Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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    This is a valuable contribution to the teacher education literature that offers a number of perspectives from different schools of thought on the conditions that prepare effective teachers.

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  • Cantrell, S. C., and H. K. Hughes. 2008. Teacher efficacy and content literacy implementation: An exploration of the effects of extended professional development with coaching. Journal of Literacy Research 40:95–127.

    DOI: 10.1080/10862960802070442Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This is a highly informative research article that identifies opportunities for professional development for teachers of adolescents. Emphasis is placed on the implementation and impact of coaching on the provision of effective reading instruction within the content areas. Available online to subscribers.

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  • Chard, D. J. 2004. Toward a science of professional development in early reading instruction. Exceptionality 12.3: 175–191.

    DOI: 10.1207/s15327035ex1203_5Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This is a frequently cited and highly readable examination of the need to use scientific research on reading development and reading difficulties to more effectively develop preparation programs for reading teachers. Available online to subscribers.

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  • Joshi, M., and A. Cunningham, eds. 2009. Special issue: Perceptions and reality: What we know about the quality of literacy instruction. Journal of Learning Disabilities 42.

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    The compilation of articles in this issue offers users a superlative analysis of current issues and trends in the preparation of reading teachers, which focuses on the substantial knowledge that a teacher must possess.

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  • Snow, Catherine E., Peg Griffin, and M. Susan Burns. 2005. Knowledge to support the teaching of reading: Preparing teachers for a changing world. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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    This highly readable book summarizes the findings from the National Academy of Education’s Committee on Teacher Education and provides outstanding guidance on the concepts and knowledge teachers must acquire to improve student learning.

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  • Walsh, K., D. Glaser, and D. Wilcox. 2006. What education schools aren’t teaching about reading and what elementary teachers aren’t learning. Washington, DC: National Council on Teacher Quality.

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    In this groundbreaking report, a national representative sample of schools of education was studied to determine the depth and quality of courses required for future reading teachers. The most comprehensive of its kind, the report determined that education schools are ignoring the principles of good reading instruction that would instruct prospective teachers in improving their teaching of reading skills. E-book.

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Federal Policy

During the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century, there has been a significant increase in the development of policy initiatives in the field of reading. These new trends indicate an increasing recognition that education policy in general, and reading policy in particular, should be informed by converging evidence bearing on reading development, the assessment and instruction of critical reading skills, and the need for specific outcome measures to evaluate the effectiveness of education policies and initiatives. Several major federal efforts to infuse research into policy are represented by the No Child Left Behind legislation, the Reading First legislation, and the reauthorization of the Head Start and Title I programs. Users interested in thoughtful overviews and analyses of the processes involved in building and implementing evidence-based reading policy and practices are encouraged to examine the edited work Carlson and Levin 2005. Lyon, et al. 2005 summarizes the efforts to build evidence-based reading policy in the United States and the outcomes of those efforts. Miskel and Song 2004 offers a fascinating analysis of the influence of advocacy groups, professional organizations, and individuals on the development of federal-level reading policies. From a different perspective, Allington 2002 provides users with counterarguments to evidence-based reading policy. A historical view of ways in which congressional committees and members were apprised of the status of scientific knowledge about reading, and of the need for federal education policy to embrace scientific evidence in its development, is provided in Lyon 1997–2005 in a series of appearances before Congress. The Center on Education Policy 2007 provides users with a frequently cited report on states’ and local districts’ perceptions of the Reading First program.

  • Allington, R. 2002. Big Brother and the national reading curriculum: How ideology trumped evidence. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

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    This text offers an opposing view on the use of scientific evidence in formulating national reading policy.

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  • Carlson, J. S., and J. Levin, eds. 2005. The No Child Left Behind legislation: Educational research and federal funding. Psychological Perspectives on Contemporary Educational Issues. Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

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    This edited text summarizes critical debates and a wide range of perspectives on the need for evidence-based federal education policy and the potential for positive and negative consequences.

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  • Center on Education Policy. 2007. Reading First locally appreciated, nationally troubled. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy.

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    This report summarizes the impact of the Reading First program on school-wide perceptions of the effectiveness of the program, on professional development, and on student achievement in reading.

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  • Lyon, G. R. 1997–2005. Congressional testimonies. Covington, LA: Center for Development and Learning.

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    This volume provides the written records of several testimonies relevant to reading, reading research, and the need for evidence-based policy initiatives that were eventually instrumental in the development of national reading policy.

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  • Lyon, G. R., S. E. Shaywitz, B. A. Shaywitz, and V. Chhabra. 2005. Evidence-based reading policy in the United States: How scientific research informs instructional practices. Brookings Papers on Educational Policy. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute.

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    This report provides a historical review of research on reading policy efforts from 1996 to 2005. Available online to subscribers.

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  • Miskel, C., and M. Song. 2004. Passing Reading First: Prominence and processes in an elite policy network. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 26.2: 89–109.

    DOI: 10.3102/01623737026002089Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This article highlights the methodologies employed by policy experts to delineate the complex array of factors that influence policy development and the types of analyses carried out to identify the relative contributions of individuals, organizations, and groups in the development and implementation of reading policy.

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