Teacher Preparation
- LAST REVIEWED: 28 April 2017
- LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011
- DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0044
- LAST REVIEWED: 28 April 2017
- LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011
- DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0044
Introduction
Teacher education programs strive to prepare teachers who are knowledgeable in their content areas, well informed about research-based curriculum and instructional practices, grounded in the foundations of learning theory and educational decision making, and equipped to meet the needs of diverse learners. While most teacher preparation programs share similar goals, there is less consensus on the best path for achieving desired results. To further complicate the field of teacher preparation, requirements for teacher licensure vary significantly by state, as do accreditation criteria for teacher education programs. For example, teacher preparation programs in some universities may consist of graduate-level “5th year” teacher candidates, while other programs may offer education courses to students as early as the freshman year of college or university. In light of these differences, education faculty members rely on a variety of resources to define a core body of knowledge. Recent policy initiatives and growing public interest in improving teacher quality are drawing greater attention to the field of teacher preparation. For decades, prominent federal programs and a series of interventions have been aimed at narrowing the achievement gap between students from various backgrounds. Subsequently, considerable debate surrounded the question of how best to meet the needs of disadvantaged learners. Rather than continued examination of district initiatives and curricular overhauls as levers of change, recent efforts shifted attention to the classroom as the unit of analysis. This focus has resulted in an elevated sense of urgency to examine classroom-level issues of teacher and instructional quality. Accordingly, the field of teacher preparation is under greater scrutiny as more questions are asked about what teachers should know and be able to do as they enter the classroom. Just as discussions about national standards for student learning are becoming more common, so, too, are discussions of national standards for the teaching profession. While debate continues about how high-quality teaching is defined, measured, accessed, and improvedboth at the entry point of the profession and within the profession—few would argue with the importance of high-quality teaching in improving student achievement. The criticality of teacher preparation as a mechanism for improving teacher quality suggests that preservice programs provide prospective teachers with training in the following categories: introduction to the field of education, human development and learning, classroom management, instruction, inclusive educational practices, assessment, educational decision making, and career resources. This bibliography focuses on general resources for prekindergarten through twelfth-grade (PK–12) education in these areas, emphasizing a combination of practical and theoretical resources selected for their value in a professional teacher’s library. Subject and grade-level-specific recommendations will be presented in subsequent bibliographies.
The Context of American Education
Prospective teachers benefit from an introduction to the concepts, issues, and perspectives shaping the field of education, because such an introduction provides the opportunity to increase awareness—and examine personal attitudes and assumptions—about diversity, learning, students, instructional practices, curriculum, and resources that affect classroom learning. Introductory courses emphasize the importance of developing thoughtful and informed practitioners with competence to teach all learners.
Foundations in Education
“Foundations in education” often refers to the opportunity for prospective teachers to examine four key themes: (a) why teach, (b) who will we teach, (c) what should we teach, and (d) how should we teach? While broad in scope, introductory classes typically address these topics, introducing concepts and issues that have shaped the American education system and perspectives on definitions of teaching and learning. Echaore-McDavid 2001 and Fine 2005 provide career guidance for those who may not yet know the range of opportunities within the field of education. Armstrong, et al. 2009 offers a comprehensive overview of the field, concentrating on issues relevant in today’s classrooms. Ryan and Cooper 2007 and Palmer 2007 primarily address motivations for teaching and the need for a strong commitment to student learning. Barzun 1991 is more theoretical, but describes a vision of education as a system for preparation from early childhood through university life.
Armstrong, D. G., K. T. Henson, and T. V. Savage. 2009. Teaching today: An Introduction to Education. 8th ed. Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
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Covers Trends and Realities, Contexts for Teaching (characteristics and constraints of today’s classroom), Today’s Diverse Learners, Teachers and Their Work (issues involved with the various dimensions of teachers’ professional lives), and Schools (school characteristics related to administration, staffing, programming, and delivery of quality service to learners).
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Barzun, J. 1991. Begin here: The forgotten conditions of teaching and learning. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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A collection of fifteen essays heralding the need to stand against fads in education and focus on actions that promote teaching and learning. Although Barzun discusses the educational system at the university level, his ideas are provocative and challenging for defining the processes of teaching and learning as a whole.
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Echaore-McDavid, S. 2001. Career opportunities in education and related services. Facts on File’s Career Opportunities series. New York: Checkmark.
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Provides a broad overview of opportunities in the field of education, including early childhood, other areas of specialization, support positions, and overseas teaching at all levels.
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Fine, J. 2005. Opportunities in teaching careers. Rev. ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Includes chapters summarizing key topics related to the teaching field in general, as well as specific discussion of issues such as qualifications and training, how to get started, and options for membership in educational associations. E-book.
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Palmer, P. 2007. The courage to teach: Exploring the inner landscape of a teacher’s life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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According to Palmer, good teaching is not based solely on technique but is also predicated on key characteristics such as integrity and enthusiasm.
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Ryan, K., and J. M. Cooper. 2007. Those who can, teach. 11th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
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A thorough look at the field of teaching, including exploration of questions about today’s students, teachers, and laws. Also provides discussion of the historical, philosophical, and social foundations of the American education system.
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Educational History and Politics
An understanding of educational history provides prospective teachers with a contextual framework for current educational structures and emphases. It also places political debate, as well as reform and policy challenges, in perspective. In the following resources, traditions, trends, and decisions in US public schools are examined in light of sociological, philosophical, and historical foundations. Gutek 2001 provides a range of philosophical thought on the subject, while Hochschild and Scovronick 2004 and Miller 1997 focus on specific explanations of the ways in which societal values shape the educational system. Karier 1986 offers a detailed analysis of the political motivations guiding educational decision making, and Ravitch 2010 questions the motivations and results of decades of attempts to align teaching, learning, and outcomes with stated values. Spring 2008 offers insight into the tensions of competing interests as they are manifested in schools, and Urban and Wagoner 1999 ties shifts in educational focus to key markers in American history. From each perspective, the relationship between the educational system and US society is shown to be deeply intertwined.
Gutek, G. 2001. Historical and philosophical foundations of education: Selected readings. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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Thoughts on education from a variety of thinkers, from Aristotle, Plato, and Thomas Aquinas to Maria Montessori. Useful to promote discussion and evaluation of the purposes and means of education.
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Hochschild, J., and N. Scovronick. 2004. The American dream and the public schools. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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Reader friendly and relatively brief, this book provides an overview of key issues affecting the American public school system, including desegregation, finance reform, school choice, separation, and inclusion.
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Karier, C. 1986. The individual, society, and education: A history of American educational ideas. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.
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A treatise on the historical events and political movements that have influenced the American educational system.
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Miller, R. 1997. What are schools for? Holistic education in American culture. 3d rev. ed. Brandon, VT: Holistic Education.
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Values and issues that affect American public education, prioritizing “meeting the needs of children.” Useful for provoking discussion about the purpose of schooling.
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Ravitch, D. 2010. The death and life of the great American school system: How testing and choice are undermining education. New York: Basic Books.
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Ravitch traces the cycles of educational reform that have characterized the educational system for more than a hundred years. The author argues that a series of fads and movements under the guise of progressivism and innovation have instead diluted the academic integrity of the system. She calls for a return to pedagogically sound teaching.
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Spring, J. 2008. The American school, from the Puritans to No Child Left Behind: Varieties of historical interpretation of the foundations and development of American education. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
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In-depth overview of the varied and sometimes competing interests (e.g., political and religious) that shaped the American educational system.
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Urban, W., and J. Wagoner. 1999. American education: A history. 2d ed. New York: McGraw- Hill.
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The development of the American educational system is explained within the broad social, political, and economic contexts of key American historical events and trends.
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Social Context of Teaching and Learning
The social context of learning refers to the social, philosophical, and political dimensions of education and their relationship to issues of democracy, diversity, equity, school organization, and the ecology of schooling. While related to societal influences described in educational history, social-context references explore the relationship between schools and society, with a particular emphasis on developing an understanding of the societal factors that can affect students’ educational experiences and outcomes. Works such as Delpit 2006 and Postman 1996 promote thoughtful examination of personal and public assumptions about the relationship between education and societal values. Concepts related to what schools and existing structures create are further examined in several texts. Heath 1983 and Rose 1989 provide intimate looks at how individual backgrounds alter educational experiences for students, and Lareau 1989 characterizes factors that influence success in the existing system. Forman, et al. 1996 and Moll 1992 offer theoretical descriptions and examples of sociocultural functions leading to educational ends. Strouse 2000 examines the growing complexities of teaching and learning in the United States. Brown and Kysilka 2002 offers a practical perspective on the competing societal interests, and therefore educational demands, facing today’s teachers and students. Resources such as these are often used to promote thoughtful discussions and examination of preexisting assumptions about how academic success and failure (individually and system wide) are defined.
Brown, S. C., and M. L. Kysilka. 2002. Applying multicultural and global concepts in the classroom and beyond. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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Written for practicing teachers, the authors introduce multicultural and global education issues, with discussion aimed at meeting the needs of diverse learners in the classroom.
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Delpit, L. 2006. Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. Rev. ed. New York: New Press.
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This book examines how assumptions about people and learning are based in culture. Topics discussed raise questions for discussion, pointing to perspectives on effective methods for learning, communicating, and teaching. Authors argue that teachers must reach beyond good intentions and personal experiences to guide their approach to teaching.
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Forman, E., N. Minick, and C. Stone, eds. 1996. Contexts for learning: Sociocultural dynamics in children’s development. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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A sampling of well-respected sociocultural research papers connecting theory and practice. Text is divided into three parts: (1) discourse and learning in classroom practice, (2) interpersonal relations in formal and informal education, and (3) sociocultural institutions in formal and informal education.
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Heath, S. B. 1983. Ways with words: Language, life and work in communities and classrooms. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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In this classic piece, Heath traces how students in two nearby but very different communities learn to use language at home and school. Provides a detailed and provocative look at how variations in social group and culture influence classroom experiences of children.
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Lareau, A. 1989. Home advantage: Social class and parental intervention in elementary education. Education Policy Perspectives, Social Analysis series. Philadelphia: Falmer.
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Provides an initiation for prospective teachers into the ideas of cultural capital and social reproduction and their ramifications for the educational experiences of children.
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Moll, L. C., ed. 1992. Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Volume of original papers emphasizing the application of Vygotsky’s psychological thoughts to educational practices, including ideas related to school organization, teacher training, special education, literacy, technology, and educational achievement.
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Postman, N. 1996. The end of education: Redefining the value of school. New York: Vintage.
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This book is an easy read, yet full of challenging ideas. Postman calls for Americans to grapple with the issue of the purpose of schooling. Rather than emphasizing how or what is taught, Postman makes the case for a radical shift in the purported goals of education, arguing that the current system is devoid of appropriate philosophical underpinnings.
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Rose, M. 1989. Lives on the boundary: A moving account of the struggles and achievements of America’s educational underclass. New York: Penguin.
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Through a powerfully told personal story, Rose writes passionately about the need to empower students with academic literacy, in all of its social, pedagogical, and communal aspects.
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Strouse, J. 2000. Exploring socio-cultural themes in education: Readings in social foundations. 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
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An anthology of essays reporting various perspectives on the history of education. Includes discussion of challenges for teachers, related to the increasing social, cultural, and linguistic diversity of students and communities.
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Human Development and Learning
In studies of human development and learning, prospective teachers examine major theories and explore the multiple, dynamic contexts within which today’s students grow and learn. Typically, resources point to the notion that children’s development is shaped by an interaction between heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) and that it is difficult to attribute learning or growth to either influence alone.
Human Development
The relationship between human development and learning is self-evident, and education students who understand typical patterns and variations by age are better equipped to design learning activities that are appropriately calibrated to maximize student challenge and success. In their studies, prospective teachers should become familiar with research findings related to physical, social, emotional, moral, and cognitive development, with specific focus on the variation of experiences related to gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and culture. The field of human development was historically associated with the field of psychology. Gauvain and Cole 2008 offers several prominent psychological research papers providing support and evidence for advancing theories. Other texts offer chronological accounts of child development in light of psychological theory, including the latest edition of Lightfoot, et al. 2009, written with added attention to cultural influences on development, and Steinberg, et al. 2010, a synthesis of the range of influences on child psychological development. Although also rooted in psychological theory, McDevitt and Ormrod 2007 provides explicit guidance in translating development theories into educational applications. Wood 1997 is a highly practical and simple guide to classroom implications of developmental understandings. Bronfenbrenner 2004 is a theoretical account of human development from a bioecological perspective, offering an additional perspective on human development
Bronfenbrenner, U. 2004. Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
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This text emphasizes social context within bioecological theory. The first section presents a series of papers by Bronfenbrenner that describe bioecological theory. The second section concentrates on how Bronfenbrenner’s ideas are reflected in programs and policies aimed at promoting positive human development.
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Gauvain, M., and M. Cole, eds. 2008. Readings on the development of children. 5th ed. New York: Worth.
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A series of papers describing significant psychological theories on the development of children. Valuable resource for class assignments and reflection journals on developmental theories.
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Lightfoot, C., M. Cole, and S. R. Cole. 2009. The development of children. 6th ed. New York: Worth.
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Now in its sixth edition, this book chronicles the relationship between biology and culture in the developmental process, from the prenatal stage through adolescence. The authors provide a comprehensive and technical description of human development, as well as thoughtful discussion of varying and competing theoretical perspectives.
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McDevitt, T. M., and J. E. Ormrod. 2007. Child development and education. 3d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
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Written specifically for educators by a developmentalist and an educational psychologist, this comprehensive child-development text covers developmental research with a specific emphasis on potential applications in educational settings.
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Steinberg, L., D. Vandell, and M. Bornstein. 2010. Development: Infancy through adolescence. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage.
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Steinberg’s previous works are highly regarded as in-depth scholarly resources on the developmental aspects of adolescence. In this new volume, he and two other authors trace development from infancy through adolescence, synthesizing biological, social, cultural, and socioeconomic influences.
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Wood, C. 1997. Yardsticks, children in the classroom ages 4–14: A resource for parents and teachers. Greenfield, MA: Northeast Foundation for Children.
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A practical, easy-to-read, and easy-to-use guide to motor, social, emotional, and cognitive development according to age. The author provides lists and explanations of typical characteristics at each age, including potential strengths and weaknesses in each domain.
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Learning Theory
Learning theory refers to the study of how individuals make sense of the world. Several prominent thinkers are considered “classic” learning theorists, and associated schools of thought, and some of their derivatives, comprise major aspects of thought regarding learning. Prospective teachers who understand these perspectives and their potential applicability are advantaged when faced with determining how to design meaningful learning opportunities for students.
Classic Theorists
Classic learning theories that are often studied include constructivism (as found in Dewey 1933, Dewey 1938, Piaget 1973, Bruner 1977, Vygotsky 1978, and Vygotsky 1986), which proposes that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than merely acquiring it passively from another. In this view, knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses regarding the environment. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation and construction of the knowledge process. Skinner 1973 offers a behaviorist perspective on development; Erikson 1963, a psychosocial perspective; and Maslow 1968, a psychological perspective. These views have influenced approaches to education for decades and continue to shape educational thought on the processes of teaching and learning.
Bruner, J. 1977. The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Bruner argues for “the spiral curriculum,” with discussions on the importance of structure, readiness for learning, intuitive and analytical thinking, motives for learning, and aids to teaching.
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Dewey, J. 1933. How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. 2d ed. New York: D. C. Heath.
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In this book, Dewey discusses his five elements of inquiry: suggestion, problem, hypothesis, reasoning, and testing.
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Dewey, John. 1938. Experience and education. Kappa Delta Pi Lecture Series. New York: Macmillan.
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Dewey explains his view that knowledge emerges from real-life experiences and that these situations must be embedded in a social context where students manipulate materials and form a community of learners who construct knowledge together. Additionally, students must be engaged in meaningful activities requiring them to apply concepts that they are intended to learn.
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Erikson, E. H. 1963. Childhood and society. 2d ed. New York: Norton.
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Erikson describes his theoretical framework for eight stages of life, focused on identity development. His psychosocial theory looks at the impact of external factors, parents, and society on personality development. Learning is then contingent on successful progress through these stages.
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Maslow, A. 1968. Toward a psychology of being. 2d ed. Insight Book 5. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
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Maslow argues for the significance of self-actualization. His “theory of motivation” moves from low- to high-level needs.
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Piaget, J. 1973. The psychology of intelligence. Translated by Malcolm Piercy and D. E. Berlyne. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield and Adams.
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Piaget explains his stage theory as the idea that humans learn through the building of logical structures. He viewed development as a back-and-forth process of finding a fit between what someone already knows and new environmental experiences. He theorized that learning progresses through a series of stages related to how children perceive and interact with the world around them.
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Skinner, B. F. 1973. About behaviorism. London: Penguin.
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In this volume, Skinner provides a simplified explanation of his earlier publications detailing his vision of behaviorism. He suggests a behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future. Therefore, desirable or undesirable responses can be conditioned through a chain of events.
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Vygotsky, L. S. 1978. Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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Vygotsky describes how intelligence develops through interaction with people and the environment. The second half of the book is devoted to “Educational Implications,” discussing the zone of proximal development—how to set up learning environments and activities that maximize student learning.
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Vygotsky, L. S. 1986. Thought and language. Rev. ed. Translated and edited by Alex Kozulin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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According to Vygotsky, individuals help each other construct meaning, and thought and language are taught and mediated by social forces. This concept, termed “socially mediated learning,” is explained.
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Contemporary Perspectives
Contemporary perspectives on learning include Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence model (Gardner 2006), as well as advances in cognitive science reported in Bransford, et al. 2000.
Bransford, J., A. Brown, and R. Cocking, eds. 2000. How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academies.
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Distills cognitive-research findings into themes related to how people develop conceptual understanding. Provides specific examples and accompanying commentary from various content areas.
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Gardner, H. 2006. Multiple intelligences: New horizons in theory and practice. New York: Basic Books.
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Gardner lays out a rationale for the social, educational, and psychological impact of Multiple Intelligence Theory, which states that there are at least seven ways (“intelligences”) in which people understand and perceive the world. These intelligences not only refer to natural preferences for modes of learning but suggest that different types of intelligences (beyond IQ) constitute human potential.
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Classroom Management
Effective classroom management can be defined as “the ability to create, establish and maintain an environment in which students learn.” Classroom management is a manifestation of how a teacher demonstrates and takes responsibility for one central concern: the learning of all students within the classroom. Accordingly, in its broader application, effective classroom management rests on successful implementation of practices related to curriculum design, instructional strategies, and assessment. It also is marked by a unique combination of skills related to classroom structure, organization, communication and relationships, materials management, and management of student behavior. Prospective teachers are typically encouraged to explore various classroom-management theories and practical techniques related to children and adolescents (both with and without behavioral and social disabilities) in the classroom. Based on exposure to these models, they build a personal philosophy of classroom management and discipline based on a fit between their own philosophy and a firm understanding of the teacher’s role in creating an effective learning environment.
Principles of Effective Classroom Management
Teachers who exhibit classroom management proficiency typically possess a variety of skills. Not only are they well prepared, watchful, and resourceful, but they also use their knowledge of children, the curriculum, and human behavior to create an effective learning environment. This environment is characterized by a high level of safety (Maslow 1970) and student engagement (Weinstein 2007, Weinstein and Mignano 2007, Darch and Kameenui 2004). In such cases, the classroom is a place in which students effectively interact with the teacher, each other (Cangelosi 2004), the curriculum (Jones and Jones 2009), and the classroom culture (Evertson and Weinstein 2006).
Cangelosi, J. 2004. Classroom management strategies: Gaining and maintaining students’ cooperation. 5th ed. New York: Wiley.
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A clear, detailed, and thoughtful presentation of the reasons that student cooperation is necessary for classroom learning. Throughout the text, teachers are prompted to analyze cases in light of research-based classroom management concepts and develop strategies for fostering meaningful interactions with students and motivating them to engage in learning activities. Sections include effective methods for confronting and solving problems together.
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Darch, C. B., and E. J. Kameenui. 2004. Instructional classroom management: A proactive approach to behavior management. 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
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Authors focus on instructional analysis as the starting point for analyzing behavioral-management problems. This perspective helps future teachers reflect on the role of effective teaching and learning in managing the classroom learning environment.
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Evertson, C. M., and C. S. Weinstein, eds. 2006. The handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
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A theoretical discussion of principles of classroom management, with the view that it has two purposes: to establish and sustain an environment where meaningful learning takes place and to enhance students’ social and moral growth.
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Jones, V., and L. Jones. 2009. Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of support and solving problems. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
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Provides history of discipline research as well as ideas for how teachers can create positive interpersonal relationships and motivation. Focuses on implementing effective instructional methods as a means of minimizing disruptive behaviors. Includes a section on what to do if management plans fail.
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Maslow, A. 1970. Motivation and personality. 2d ed. New York: Harper and Row.
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Maslow discusses his theory of motivation, explaining the Hierarchy of Needs model: physiological well-being, safety, love and belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualization. Suggests that if students’ basic physical and psychological needs are not met, they will be unable to focus on the work of learning.
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Weinstein, C. S. 2007. Middle and secondary classroom management: Lessons from research and practice. 3d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Focuses on key issues and strategies for new middle- and secondary-school teachers, including managing the classroom, meeting the needs of students, and making learning relevant.
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Weinstein, C. S., and A. J. Mignano Jr. 2007. Elementary classroom management: Lessons from research and practice. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Focuses on key issues and strategies for new elementary-school teachers, including managing the classroom, meeting the needs of students, and making learning relevant.
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Practical Strategies
Prospective teachers benefit from examination both of the theory and practical strategies associated with successful classroom management. Integral to positive outcomes, teachers must exhibit professionalism (Manning and Bucher 2007), expertise (Marzano, et al. 2003), and an unwavering commitment to maintaining behavioral standards that support an effective learning environment. These traits are often manifested through a series of practical strategies consistently employed by excellent teachers. Resources such as Evertson and Emmer 2009 (elementary) and Emmer and Evertson 2009 (middle and high school) offer grade-level specific suggestions. Manning and Bucher 2007 provides specific cases to prompt thoughtful discussions about how to respond to specific situations, and Charles and Senter 2009 focuses on the teacher’s role in creating respectful learning environments. Cipani 2008 suggests strategies for avoiding undesirable behaviors, and Denton 2007 addresses how teachers’ words shape student behaviors, for good or ill.
Charles, C., and G. Senter. 2009. Building classroom discipline. 9th ed. Boston: Pearson-Allyn and Bacon.
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Provides a broad overview of theories and a range of practical suggestions to help teachers develop their own personal system of discipline. Examples and rationales emphasize working with students to create mutually respectful and helpful learning environments.
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Cipani, E. 2008. Classroom management for all teachers: Plans for evidence-based practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice-Hall.
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Specific strategies are discussed as a two-pronged model is described: (1) preventing and stopping undesirable behaviors while (2) replacing them with desirable behaviors. Research citations are provided to support the proposed model.
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Denton, P. 2007. The power of our words: Teacher language that helps children learn. Turners Falls, MA: Northeast Foundation for Children.
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Emphasis on teacher language and how subtle choices in words have varying effects on student development as learners. Explains how to use specific phrases to encourage students to take responsibility and control of their learning behaviors. For example, the author encourages teachers to rethink the use of “please” and “thank you” for expected behaviors.
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Emmer, E., and C. Evertson. 2009. Classroom management for middle and high school teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
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Practical suggestions and examples for middle- and high-school classroom setup, student resources, and behavioral management. Authors discuss effective instruction and classroom management as mutually dependent.
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Evertson, C., and E. Emmer. 2009. Classroom management for elementary teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
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Written for elementary teachers, this book provides practical suggestions and examples for classroom setup, student resources, and behavioral management. Authors discuss effective instruction and classroom management as mutually dependent.
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Manning, M. L., and K. T. Bucher. 2007. Classroom management: Models, applications, and cases. 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
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To help students develop their own philosophical approach to classroom management, the authors present and discuss specific scenarios. These cases are used to encourage new teachers to understand and accept their role in making the classroom an effective learning environment for all students.
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Marzano, R. J., J. S. Marzano, and D. J. Pickering. 2003. Classroom management that works: Research-based strategies for every teacher. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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A publication of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), this book provides an overview and discussion of research-based classroom management approaches, offering a series of techniques supported by data.
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Curriculum Design
Prospective teachers studying curriculum design learn that it is not simply a plan detailing a set of specific objectives, but it also encompasses the implementation of those plans in such a way that student learning is achieved. In this view, curriculum is not only a physical thing, but it is also a process reflected in the interaction of teachers, students, and knowledge. Curriculum is active and teachers must use curriculum design and delivery as tools to promote learning. The science of curriculum design includes interactions of teachers, students, and knowledge that lead to student learning. To teach effectively, prospective teachers learn to identify an instructional problem, set learning objectives (Bloom, et al. 1956; Anderson, et al. 2001), select appropriate instructional strategies, evaluate student progress toward objectives, and revise objectives. McTighe and Wiggins 2005 provides a description of the process of planning with the end or goals in mind. While this type of planning can follow a set of prescriptive steps, teachers must also consider how its implementation is supported by a nuanced understanding of the principles of effective design. These principles are explained in detail in Flinders and Thornton 1997, a study of the history of curriculum design. Borich 2007 emphasizes teacher self-evaluation in the process, and Egan 1989 suggests a unique way of thinking about the design process. Burden and Byrd 2003 and Wiles 1999 offer a variety of practical strategies for planning a cohesive set of instructional activities.
Anderson, L. W., D. R. Krathwohl, and B. S. Bloom, eds. 2001. A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of learning objectives. New York: Longman.
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Addressing teachers, the authors explain their modifications to Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive processes, providing an expanded and more detailed model for classifying types of knowledge.
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Bloom, B. S., M. Engelhart, E. Furst, W. Hill, and D. Krathwohl. 1956. Taxonomy of educational objectives: Book 1: Cognitive domain. New York: Longman.
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Sets forth a timeless framework for understanding and classifying cognitive abilities. Bloom’s taxonomy is often used for setting appropriate student-learning objectives based on mastery of prerequisite cognitive skills.
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Borich, G. 2007. Effective teaching methods: Research-based practice. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
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Starts with the importance of understanding students then discusses how to set learning goals and objectives to match identified needs. Includes directions for teacher self-assessment throughout the process, with a consistent focus on the question, What is an effective teacher?
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Burden, P. R., and D. M. Byrd. 2003. Methods for effective teaching. 3d ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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Introductory guide to teacher decision making, with particular emphasis on preparing for instruction. Includes suggestions for types of teacher planning (course, term, unit, weekly, and daily), as well as how to present and manage learning opportunities.
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Egan, K. 1989. Teaching as story telling: An alternative approach to teaching and curriculum in the elementary school. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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A short, provocative book promoting the notion of viewing curriculum as the story a teacher is to tell. Overall structure of storytelling and understanding is explained as an alternative framework for approaching curriculum planning.
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Flinders, D. J., and S. J. Thornton, eds. 1997. The curriculum studies reader. New York: Routledge.
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Collection of writing by respected American education authors, with commentary, history, and a variety of approaches. A primer on curriculum.
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McTighe, J., and G. Wiggins. 2005. Understanding by design. 2d ed. Alexandria, VA: ACSD.
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Published by the Association for Curriculum Supervision and Design (ACSD), this is a strong text for learning the backwards design process, that is, curriculum planning that begins with the end (or learning objective) in mind. Prospective and current teachers are guided through the process of developing opportunities for students to learn and demonstrate that understanding.
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Wiles, J. 1999. Curriculum essentials: A resource for educators. New York: Allyn and Bacon.
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Well-organized guide to tools for developing curriculum, including models, tables, charts, and summaries of research.
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Instruction
Prospective teachers benefit from adopting the view that to be effective they must be perpetual students of teaching and learning. Successful teachers are typically committed to growing in their understanding of how people learn and how their teaching can positively affect student learning. To prepare prospective teachers for success and to accomplish these goals, they must become familiar with existing literature about learning behaviors, effective teaching practices, and correlated effects on student outcomes. Effective teachers work to ensure that their classroom is a sound environment for learning, and their instructional practices match principles of human learning. Resources related to instruction serve to guide teachers through both the process of developing this disposition and the skills necessary to make effective instructional decisions. Application, frequency, and modifications to specific instructional strategies will vary by subject, student age, and subject matter. References for specific content areas, as well as resources according to education level, will be provided in subsequent bibliographies. The following items were chosen for broad applicability across prekindergarten through twelfth-grade classrooms.
Principles of Effective Instruction
It is important for prospective teachers to learn that no single model or teaching technique will meet the needs of all students without exception, at all times. Rather, effective instruction relies on a deep understanding of several principles of effective instruction, which are predicated on one single goal: matching instruction with student learning needs. This perspective is the foundation of the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) model, which emphasizes the importance of attending to student differences. The newly designed website of the National Center on Universal Design for Learning is an excellent resource for information about the model as well as guidance on its application. Other resources detail a range of strategies known to be important in instructional practice. Marzano, et al. 2001 provides a comprehensive discussion of best practices. Bayer 1990 and Rogoff 1990 describe the collaborative apprenticeship model that emphasizes student-calibrated learning opportunities and the teacher’s role in supporting student learning independence. Additionally, several basic instructional strategies that can be applied across the curriculum are known to promote critical thinking and comprehension. These teacher practices are presented in detail in Fisher and Frey 2009, a discussion about tapping background knowledge; Cazden 1999, on deepening thought through classroom discourse; and Fisher and Frey 2008, an explanation of structured learning with built-in scaffolds.
Bayer, A. S. 1990. Collaborative-apprenticeship learning: Language and thinking across the curriculum, K–12. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
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Bayer advocates increasing student responsibility for learning through the use of collaboration in the classroom. Emphasizing social-learning theory, Bayer provides a detailed guide for how teachers can scaffold critical-thinking skill development through talk and targeted activities. The author also emphasizes the teacher’s dual role as collaborator and expert learner.
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Cazden, C. B. 1999. Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning. 2d ed. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
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Given that much of classroom life revolves around student–teacher interactions, Cazden provides an important discussion of how to use classroom talk as a tool for cognitive development. As a teacher and a researcher, Cazden brings a teacher-friendly voice and practicality to research findings on the topic of classroom discourse.
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Fisher, D., and N. Frey. 2008. Better learning through structured teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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The book discusses a gradual transfer of responsibility from teacher to student as a model of instruction that includes focus lessons (modeling), guided instruction (scaffolding), collaborative learning (productive group work), and independent learning (homework, spiral review, extension).
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Fisher, D., and N. Frey. 2009. Background knowledge: The missing piece of the comprehension puzzle. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
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Often challenging for new teachers, this book provides specific strategies for assessing, activating, building, and extending background knowledge. E-book.
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Marzano, R. J., D. J. Pickering, and J. E. Pollock. 2001. Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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Identifies and explains research-supported learning strategies for use in the classroom and in homework assignments. Not only provides practical applications of research findings but includes explicit references to data and theoretical principles supporting suggested instructional techniques.
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National Center on Universal Design for Learning. 2010.
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A comprehensive website supporting the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) model, an approach to teaching intended to reduce barriers blocking students’ access to instruction and the curriculum. UDL is s framework for designing curriculum to meet the needs of diverse learners. The model consists of three major components, including multiple means of (1) representation, (2) action and expression, and (3) engagement. Website offers definitions, examples, and research citations. See also the CAST (Center for Applied Special Technology) website.
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Rogoff, B. 1990. Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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A thorough explanation of the cognitive apprenticeship model and the interdependent nature of human development. Detailed illustrations and thoughtful descriptions of the processes associated with guided participation, structured situations, and transferring of responsibility.
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Instructional Decision Making
Teachers-in-training must learn the importance of developing a repertoire of teaching strategies to draw on when necessary, applying and adapting them to the needs of their students. Therefore, experience in instructional decision making is foundational for learning to recognize what students need and to adjust teaching accordingly. Saphier, et al. 2008 provides a synthesis of key research in the form of a manual of practical strategies for prospective and new teachers to consider for classroom implementation. Bruer 1993 is a powerful guide to the science of learning and how to take an inquisitive posture in interactions with students. Case studies provided in Greenwood and Fillmer 1997 and Brown 2007 show teachers how to make instructional decisions in light of theory. Rutherford 2008 and Whitaker 2007 promote teacher reflection as a means of improving instructional quality, and Selwyn 2009 and Chall 2000 emphasize the fluid nature of classrooms and the necessity for developing a strong ability to discern what students need, and when and how to deliver it.
Brown, H. Douglas. 2007. Principles of language learning and teaching. 5th ed. White Plains, NY: Pearson Longman.
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Introduces theories of language acquisition and models for designing language instruction. Refers to debates and larger theories often and provides case studies and associated discussion questions to deepen thought.
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Bruer, J. T. 1993. Schools for thought: A science of learning in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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Bruer provides a thorough discussion of how to incorporate cognitive science research into classroom practice by putting an emphasis on asking and answering the question “Why?” Includes content-specific sections.
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Chall, J. 2000. The academic achievement challenge: What really works in the classroom? New York: Guilford.
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Chall examines the ramifications of historical trends of teacher-centered versus student-centered educational practice, challenging many commonly accepted notions. Encourages prospective teachers to consider the spectrum of educational ideas related to best practices and to critically examine accepted thought in the field.
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Greenwood, G. E., and H. T. Fillmer. 1997. Professional core cases for teacher decision-making. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
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A collection of case studies focusing on a range of problems and situations teachers may encounter in classrooms. Excellent starting point for class discussion and reflection papers.
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Rutherford, P. 2008. Instruction for all students. Alexandria, VA: Just Ask.
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Discusses teaching and learning in a standards-based classroom. Includes a framework to promote teacher thinking during the planning and teaching processes, and again afterward, during retrospection on the impact of both. May be a valuable resource to use with a mentor or practicum supervisor.
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Saphier, J., M. A. Haley-Speca, and R. Gower. 2008. The skillful teacher: Building your teaching skills. 6th ed. Acton, MA: Research for Better Teaching.
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A practical examination of factors and strategies contributing to effective teaching. Divided into four major sections: classroom management, instruction, motivation, and curriculum.
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Selwyn, D. 2009. Following the threads: Bringing inquiry research into the classroom. New York: Peter Lang.
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While focused on social-studies instruction, the examples encourage investment in decisions regarding methods, goals, and outcomes for engaging students through inquiry and action. Encourages teachers to think creatively about ways in which to anchor content to students’ interests.
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Whitaker, T. 2007. What great teachers do differently: Fourteen things that matter most. DVD. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.
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A short, clear presentation of how to be a reflective practitioner and how to analyze teaching performance when students fail. Encourages teachers to have high expectations of themselves. DVD produced and directed by David Owen, Skyline Productions. Book published in 2004.
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Differentiating Instruction
Today’s learning environments require teachers to prepare to meet the challenge of high-diversity classrooms composed of students from various social, academic, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds. The widening achievement gap and increasing focus on inclusive education further elevate the need for teachers equipped to effectively differentiate instruction. Chapman and Gregory 2002 emphasizes that instruction is often not set up to meet the needs of all children, offering strategies for new educators developing their teaching repertoire. Tomlinson 2003 is a comprehensive guide to differentiation strategies and also provides a sound rationale for prospective teachers who may be overwhelmed by the concept of designing instruction to meet individual needs. Vaughn, et al. 2010 acknowledges the difficulty of differentiating instruction but reinforces its necessity. This book also offers practical tips, as do Chapman and Gregory 2002, Gregory 2003, and Heacox 2002. Other books are directed at meeting the needs of specific groups of students, with Winebrenner 1992 and Winebrenner 1996 offering practical suggestions for two groups with specific learning needs, and Díaz-Rico and Weed 2010 providing a thorough and comprehensive guide to understanding and addressing the needs of multicultural populations.
Chapman, C., and G. H. Gregory. 2002. Differentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn’t fit all. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
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Introduces methods of differentiating instruction, making the case for developing a repertoire of teaching strategies.
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Díaz-Rico, L. T., and K. Z. Weed. 2010. The crosscultural, language, and academic development handbook: A complete K–12 reference guide. 4th ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
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A comprehensive reference guide for working with English Language Learners. This latest edition offers new “Individualizing Instruction” boxes, identifying students with specific learning needs and offering suggestions to meet those needs. The authors also pose questions at the end of each chapter, providing opportunities for student reflection about teaching decisions.
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Gregory, G. 2003. Differentiated instructional strategies in practice: Training, implementation, and supervision. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
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A discussion of how to adapt curriculum and instructional approaches to the needs of individual learners. Guide to ongoing employment of responsive teaching strategies.
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Heacox, D. 2002. Differentiating instruction in the regular classroom: How to reach and teach all learners, grades 3–12. Minneapolis: Free Spirit.
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Accessible resource for those learning the “how to’s” of differentiation.
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Tomlinson, C. A. 2003. Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: Strategies and tools for responsive teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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Provides the theoretical foundations of differentiating instruction, including the reasons for the increasing attention to matching instruction to students’ needs. Offers tools and strategies for implementation of the principles explained.
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Vaughn, S., C. S. Bos, and J. S. Schumm. 2010. Teaching students who are exceptional, diverse, and at risk in the general education classroom. 4th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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Includes rationale for activities designed to meet the needs of various students in the classroom. Acknowledges that the work of differentiating instruction will be difficult, but emphasizes its necessity.
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Winebrenner, S. 1992. Teaching gifted kids in the regular classroom: Strategies and techniques every teacher can use to meet the academic needs of the gifted and talented. Minneapolis: Free Spirit.
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A collection of practical ideas and tips designed to help teachers meet the needs of gifted students in regular classroom environments.
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Winebrenner, S. 1996. Teaching kids with learning difficulties in the regular classroom: Strategies and techniques every teacher can use to challenge and motivate struggling students. Minneapolis: Free Spirit.
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A collection of practical ideas and tips for meeting needs of students with learning difficulties in regular classroom environments.
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Inclusive Educational Practices
Inclusive educational practices focus on the evaluative and instructional processes targeted at meeting the needs of students with moderate to significant disabilities. This field of study includes identifying and developing appropriate interventions and employing them effectively in the classroom. To develop the necessary set of skills, prospective teachers benefit from a multipronged training approach drawn from a variety of resources. An introduction to the legal imperatives associated with educating students with disabilities sets the stage for what needs to be done, which can be found in two key acts:The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and The Education for All Handicapped Children Act. Rosenberg, et al. 2008 challenges teachers to recognize the variety of student differences they may encounter, and to commit to meeting each child’s needs. Friend and Bursuck 2005 and Beattie, et al. 2006 provide an introduction to inclusionary practices, which encompass key definitions, rationales, and case-study examples to promote application. Practical strategies for meeting the needs of special-education students within the regular classroom are described in Cohen and Spenciner 2008 and Glasgow, et al. 2005. Overton 2009 offers practical guidance for teachers working through the individual education plan (IEP) process; McWhirter, et al. 2007 explains potential outcomes resulting from the presence or absence of early learning-intervention experiences, helping new teachers to understand the compound effects and implications for student-achievement outcomes.
Beattie, J., L. Jordan, and B. Algozzine. 2006. Making inclusion work: Effective practices for all teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
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Authors pose and answer a series of basic questions: Why do we have inclusion? What is an IEP? What is classroom organization? They also offer several thought-provoking “how” and “why” questions related to the purpose and implementation of inclusionary practices.
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Cohen, L. G., and L. J. Spenciner. 2008. Teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities: Research-based practices. 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
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Focuses on recognizing and responding to learning needs of students with mild and moderate disabilities. Provides specific, practical examples for structuring learning opportunities in the general classroom, with discussions of classroom accommodations and modifications, as well as the use of various instructional assessments, strategies, and practices.
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The Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 34C.F.R. §300.552 (1975).
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Provides new teachers with a framework for understanding legislative mandates guiding educational efforts to meet the special needs of students.
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Friend, M., and W. D. Bursuck. 2005. Including students with special needs: A practical guide for classroom teachers. 4th ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
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A valuable resource for teachers in training. Case studies at the start of each chapter promote analysis and reflection to support application of presented ideas.
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Glasgow, N. A., C. D. Hicks, and S. J. McNary. 2005. What successful teachers do in inclusive classrooms: 60 research-based teaching strategies that help special learners succeed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
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Various strategies are discussed on broad topics, such as interaction with students, organizing lesson plans, and learning strategies. Excellent discussion of how to establish scaffolds to help students as they are learning complex skills and behaviors. Also includes discussions integrating assistive technologies, and on collaboration with colleagues and parents.
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The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 34C.F.R. §300.550 (1997).
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Important reading for new teachers. Provides the context, including legal imperatives, related to meeting the special needs of students with learning disabilities.
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McWhirter, J. J., B. T. McWhirter, E. H. McWhirter, and R. J. McWhirter. 2007. At risk youth: A comprehensive response for counselors, teachers, psychologists, and human services professionals. 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
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The McWhirters take the position that “special-needs” and “at-risk” refer to characteristics and circumstances that make children and youth more vulnerable to poor outcomes educationally, socially, and vocationally. This book provides detailed discussions of a number of issues related to early schooling experiences, including poverty, temperament, abuse and neglect, early childhood development, school readiness, school achievement, etc.
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Overton, T. 2009. Assessing learners with special needs: An applied approach. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Pearson.
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Explains assessment and provides a guide for writing individual educational plans (IEPs) and planning instructional interventions. Excellent guide to the process of designing and documenting instructional approaches.
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Rosenberg, M. S., D. L. Westling, and J. McLeskey. 2008. Special education for today’s teachers: An introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
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Although this text is addressed to special-education teachers, its guiding questions promote a reflective model helping new teachers to increase awareness of the various needs of students and to commit to attending to them through sound instruction.
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Assessing Student Learning
In preparation for the classroom, prospective teachers benefit from focused examination of assessment instruments, including appropriate application, administration, data interpretation, and instructional implications. This process involves critically evaluating a variety of assessments typically used in schools, including formal and informal measures of academic skills.
Principles for Assessing Student Learning
Educators generally understand that the value of assessment is not the end goal of instruction, but rather, a tool for informing instruction. Accordingly, in teacher education programs, prospective teachers must develop the conceptual and technical skills required to use assessments for identifying educational needs and implementing meaningful instructional strategies to promote learning for all students. The importance of assessment as a tool for informing instructional interventions is the cornerstone of the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach, and Glover and Vaughn 2010 discuss this model in detail, including implications for future directions and applications of its concepts. The guide from the National Research Council 2001 links advancements in assessment to advances in the sciences of human learning and educational measurement, creating an awareness of the nature and value of a variety of currently available assessments. Linn and Gronlund 2000 discusses the range of assessments in detail. Nitko and Brookhart 2007 is a practical reference to the range of available assessment tools and their usefulness in particular contexts. Murphy 1999 provides a more theoretical perspective, linking assessment with curricular implications, and McMillan 2006 is a sourcebook of practical application of assessment tools, with an added focus on how to assess well, in light of standards-based instruction and assessment requirements.
Glover, T., and S. Vaughn, eds. 2010. The promise of response to intervention: Evaluating the current science and practice. New York: Guilford.
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An important compilation of papers describing the rationale, history, and implementation of the RTI approach in regular and special educational environments. Future directions for the model are also discussed.
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Linn, R. L., and N. E. Gronlund. 2000. Measurement and assessment in teaching. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
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A comprehensive reference text (more than 500 pages) with detailed discussions of how to create or select, administer, and interpret results from a variety of assessments, including standardized tests, essay questions, portfolios, observations, and self- and peer-assessments.
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McMillan, J. H. 2006. Classroom assessment: Principles and practice for effective standards-based instruction. 4th ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
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A text emphasizing differences in assessment techniques and their applicability in classroom practice. Text includes examples, case studies, and teacher interviews to encourage thoughtful application of assessments based on targeted learning skills. Practically situates classroom assessment strategies in the era of large-scale standardized-testing mandates.
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Murphy, P., ed. 1999. Learners, learning and assessment. London: Paul Chapman.
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Focusing on the mind, this collection of articles offers perspectives on cognitive development, curricular implications, and learning and assessment processes. Explicitly ties an understanding of learner’s needs to the instructional planning and implementation process.
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National Research Council. 2001. Knowing what students know: The science and design of educational assessment. Washington, DC: National Academies.
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Given technological advances in the sciences of human learning and educational measurement, this book describes how new models of assessment are being designed and used to better ascertain not only levels of skill, but also types of knowledge and skill.
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Nitko, A. J., and S. M. Brookhart. 2007. Educational assessment of students. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
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A practical reference for understanding, developing, and using educational assessments. Includes discussion of how to choose appropriate evaluative tools on the basis of learning objectives and context. Covers topics from formative assessment to issues of validity and reliability in test results.
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Using Assessments to Improve Student Learning
In today’s standardized-testing environment, it is more important than ever for new teachers to be taught that “understanding is a family of related abilities,” and it is iterative. While new teachers must be adept at using standardized-test scores to inform instruction, those entering the teaching field must also learn how to offer students various opportunities to demonstrate understanding. Assessment is then a tool for evaluation of student learning, as well as a means of identifying evidence of successful teaching. Although occasionally considered beyond the scope of entry-level teacher preparation, preservice teachers enter the field advantaged if they are equipped with knowledge of how to examine the role of validity, reliability, test bias, and item construction in quality-assessment instruments. Lyman 1998 explains test scores in a detailed and accessible way, and Popham 2010 guides teachers through the process of designing tests using principles of assessment design. Taylor and Nolen 2008 discusses the range of assessment available to teachers. Prospective teachers must not only understand assessments but also learn to use them to improve student learning. Practical strategies are offered in Fisher and Frey 2007, Butler and McMunn 2006, and Wiggins 1998. Stiggins 2008 adds the dimension of student-involved assessment to the discussion. Cohen and Spenciner 2007 focuses on assessment options for students with disabilities.
Butler, S. M., and N. D. McMunn. 2006. A teacher’s guide to classroom assessment: Understanding and using assessment to improve student learning. San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons.
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A well-organized text covering the phases of assessment used to identify and meet student needs. Early chapters discuss how to unpack standards and benchmarks, define student expectations, and design and choose appropriate assessments. Later chapters offer suggestions for tracking and analyzing results and for revising feedback and instructional plans.
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Cohen, L. G., and L. J. Spenciner. 2007. Assessment of children and youth with special needs. 3d ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
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Helpful guide to designing, using, and evaluating classroom assessments for students with disabilities. Includes descriptions of assessment approaches, research-based practices, and legal mandates. Several examples situate assessments in classroom and school-level contexts.
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Fisher, D., and N. Frey. 2007. Checking for understanding: Formative assessment techniques for your classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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An easy-to-read guide with tips and techniques for systematically monitoring student learning. Provides a strong emphasis on the necessity and value of providing students with meaningful feedback and using formative assessment to guide instructional steps.
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Lyman, H. B. 1998. Test scores and what they mean. 6th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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Author explains principles and applications of basic concepts related to test scores and statistics. Valuable for learning how to interpret and use test score data.
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Popham, J. 2010. Classroom assessment: What teachers need to know. 6th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.
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A guide for designing tests that shows how to choose test questions, work with them, grade them, and determine if students understand all relevant aspects. Also provides a section on how to explain tests to parents.
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Stiggins, R. 2008. An introduction to student-involved assessment for learning. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
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How to develop an assessment plan incorporating more ways for students to demonstrate knowledge, including selected response, essay, performance, and formal and informal communication.
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Taylor, C., and S. Nolen. 2008. Classroom assessment: Supporting teaching and learning in real classrooms. 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall, 2008.
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Provides discussion of a series of assessments, including when to use them and how to use results. Many specific examples are given to guide new teachers through the thought processes associated with how assessment can inform instruction.
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Wiggins, G. 1998. Educative assessment: Designing assessments to inform and improve student performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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How to design and use performance assessments and performance tasks that can improve curriculum and instruction. Includes discussions of the importance of feedback in promoting student understanding as well as other elements of assessment, such as grading, reporting, rubrics, authentic assessments, and portfolios.
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Educational Research
Implementation of recommendations from research is essential for improving educational effectiveness. Preparing new teachers with a basic understanding of the key concepts and methods of educational research equips them with the skills to discern the applicability of research findings to their particular students and classroom setting. McEwan-Adkins and McEwan 2003 and Babbie 2005 simplify complex concepts related to research design and provide a foundation for evaluating research quality. Jaeger 1993 addresses quantitative analysis, providing beginner’s-level explanations of statistical concepts. Patton 2002 is a comprehensive guide to qualitative research design and offers excellent insight for teachers conducting action research. Rossi, et al. 2004 explains program evaluation to help teachers develop a framework for considering whether there is evidence of desired outcomes through the implementation of particular programs. US Department of Education and Institute of Education Sciences. 2010 is a website replete with information about research quality and learning outcomes from educational programs and interventions.
Babbie, Earl. 2005. The basics of social research. 3d ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
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Since much of educational research is based on social-science methodology, this guide is useful in that it simplifies complex concepts related to ways in which qualitative data can be quantified. Includes CD-ROM.
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Jaeger, R. M. 1993. Statistics: A spectator sport. 2d ed. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
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This book provides a user-friendly introduction to the methods of statistical analysis and associated means for evaluating the potential of empirical research findings.
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McEwan-Adkins, E. K., and P. J. McEwan. 2003. Making sense of research: What’s good, what’s not, and how to tell the difference. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
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This book’s guiding theme is how education professionals should ask the right questions when designing research. This perspective helps prospective teachers to value the need to clearly understand whether research findings apply in their context. The authors also explain key concepts such as the difference between causal and correlated findings.
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Patton, M. Q. 2002. Qualitative research & evaluation methods. 3d ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
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A detailed description of the process of designing and evaluating qualitative research. Focuses on asking good questions, culling answers for information, and using findings to inform educational decision making.
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Rossi, P. H., M. W. Lipsey, and H. E. Freeman. 2004. Evaluation: A systematic approach. 7th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
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Although this book is not written specifically about education program evaluation, it guides the reader through the process of developing a critical eye for evaluating program effectiveness. Valuable background knowledge for teachers who are often asked to implement new programs.
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US Department of Education and Institute of Education Sciences. 2010. What Works Clearinghouse.
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A website dedicated to explicitly examining the research basis of particular educational programs, concepts, and models. A very practical, searchable database with information categorized by age group as well as content area.
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Career Resources
Several resources are suggested in this section to help prospective teachers prepare for the more practical aspects of their career development and continuous skill improvement. For applicants for teaching positions or new teachers, Stronge 2002 discusses what principals and superintendents are looking for in hirees. Bullock and Hawk 2005 offers a step-by-step guide for developing a teaching portfolio to document career accomplishments. Other resources are more inspirational, intended as “reminder” reads, such as Schlechty 2002, which encourages teachers to remain focused on student engagement, and Smith 1998, which advocates keeping thoughts about the nature of teaching and learning at the fore. Simpson, et al. 2005 provides a provocative look at the roles teachers play in the classroom. Other potential reference resources might include Alexander and Alexander 2008, an encyclopedic volume of public-school law cases, from which selected articles may be used to show prospective teachers the legal imperatives associated with teaching and learning environments. Manos 2007 is a short book, also looking at legal aspects of the teaching profession but concisely covering topics every new teacher should consider before stepping into a classroom. Finally, an Education Week subscription is a suggested resource for keeping abreast of the latest topics in the field, as well as for finding professional organizations and resources.
Alexander, K., and M. D. Alexander. 2008. American public school law. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
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An encyclopedia of public-school law cases. Too voluminous to cover in total; however, selections from case law focus on the various constitutional principles, guidelines, and court decisions relevant to classroom decision making. Also, a valuable reference on the application of legal principles to ethical and professional problems in the classroom and school.
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Bullock, A., and P. Hawk. 2005. Developing a teaching portfolio: A guide for preservice and practicing teachers. 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
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Guides teachers through the process of developing and maintaining a record of evidence that shows teaching skill growth and accomplishments.
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A weekly periodical available for print and online subscriptions. A good resource for keeping up with current events in the field of education and for finding potential resources for specific teaching challenges (e.g., networks, subject-specific associations, forums, etc.). Published by Editorial Projects in Education. Begun in 1981.
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Manos, M. A. 2007. Knowing where to draw the line: Ethical and legal standards for best classroom practice. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
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Intended as a textbook for an education law course, this short book covers topics such as professional persona and drawing the line with students, parents, the school administration, and the community. A practical and informative guide, citing specific legal examples to highlight the importance of professional conduct.
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Schlechty, P. C. 2002. Working on the work: An action plan for teachers, principals, and superintendents. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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An interesting perspective on the role of teachers and school leaders in supporting engagement in the classroom.
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Simpson, D., M. Jackson, and J. Aycock. 2005. John Dewey and the art of teaching: Toward reflective and imaginative practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
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A set of chapters, each beginning with the words: “Teacher as ___.” Roles include wise physician, composer, builder, leader, etc. Inspirational and thought provoking, this book is an introduction to the work of John Dewey, with ideas for application of his concepts in the classroom practice and life of teachers.
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Smith, F. 1998. The book of learning and forgetting. New York: Teachers College Press.
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A brief, easy read discussing how people learn and resulting implications for how teachers should teach.
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Stronge, J. 2002. Qualities of effective teachers. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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For new teachers, this book is helpful not only as a resource for professional skill development and focus, but also as a guide for knowing what principals and other administrative leaders are looking for in classroom teachers.
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Article
- Academic Achievement
- Academic Audit for Universities
- Academic Freedom and Tenure in the United States
- Action Research in Education
- Adjuncts in Higher Education in the United States
- Administrator Preparation
- Adolescence
- Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Courses
- Advocacy and Activism in Early Childhood
- African American Racial Identity and Learning
- Alaska Native Education
- Alternative Certification Programs for Educators
- Alternative Schools
- American Indian Education
- Art Education
- Artificial Intelligence and Learning
- Assessing School Leader Effectiveness
- Assessment, Behavioral
- Assessment, Educational
- Assessment in Early Childhood Education
- Assistive Technology
- Augmented Reality in Education
- Beginning-Teacher Induction
- Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
- Blended Learning
- Bullying
- Case Study in Education Research
- Changing Professional and Academic Identities
- Character Education
- Children’s and Young Adult Literature
- Children's Beliefs about Intelligence
- Children's Rights in Early Childhood Education
- Citizenship Education
- Civic and Social Engagement of Higher Education
- Classroom Learning Environments: Assessing and Investigati...
- Classroom Management
- Coherent Instructional Systems at the School and School Sy...
- College Admissions in the United States
- College Athletics in the United States
- Community Relations
- Comparative Education
- Computer-Based Testing
- Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Evaluating Improvement Net...
- Continuous Improvement and "High Leverage" Educational Pro...
- Counseling in Schools
- Creativity
- Critical Perspectives on Educational Innovation and Improv...
- Critical Race Theory
- Crossborder and Transnational Higher Education
- Cross-National Research on Continuous Improvement
- Cross-Sector Research on Continuous Learning and Improveme...
- Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood Education
- Culturally Responsive Leadership
- Culturally Responsive Pedagogies
- Culturally Responsive Teacher Education in the United Stat...
- Curriculum Design
- Data Collection in Educational Research
- Data-driven Decision Making in the United States
- Deaf Education
- Desegregation and Integration
- Design Thinking and the Learning Sciences: Theoretical, Pr...
- Development, Moral
- Dialogic Pedagogy
- Digital Age Teacher, The
- Digital Citizenship
- Digital Divides
- Disabilities
- Distance Learning
- Distributed Leadership
- Doctoral Education and Training
- Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) in Denmark
- Early Childhood Education and Development in Mexico
- Early Childhood Education in Aotearoa New Zealand
- Early Childhood Education in Australia
- Early Childhood Education in China
- Early Childhood Education in Europe
- Early Childhood Education in Sub-Saharan Africa
- Early Childhood Education in Sweden
- Early Childhood Education Pedagogy
- Early Childhood Education Policy
- Early Childhood Education, The Arts in
- Early Childhood Mathematics
- Early Childhood Science
- Early Childhood Teacher Education
- Early Childhood Teachers in Aotearoa New Zealand
- Early Years Professionalism and Professionalization Polici...
- Economics of Education
- Education For Children with Autism
- Education for Sustainable Development
- Education Leadership, Empirical Perspectives in
- Education of Native Hawaiian Students
- Education Reform and School Change
- Educational Statistics for Longitudinal Research
- Educator Partnerships with Parents and Families with a Foc...
- Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
- Epistemic Beliefs
- Equity and Improvement: Engaging Communities in Educationa...
- Equity, Ethnicity, Diversity, and Excellence in Education
- Ethical Research with Young Children
- Ethics and Education
- Ethics of Teaching
- Ethnic Studies
- Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention
- Family and Community Partnerships in Education
- Family Day Care
- Federal Government Programs and Issues
- Feminization of Labor in Academia
- Finance, Education
- Financial Aid
- Formative Assessment
- Future-Focused Education
- Gender and Achievement
- Gender and Alternative Education
- Gifted Education
- Global Mindedness and Global Citizenship Education
- Global University Rankings
- Governance, Education
- Grounded Theory
- Growth of Effective Mental Health Services in Schools in t...
- Higher Education and Globalization
- Higher Education and the Developing World
- Higher Education Faculty Characteristics and Trends in the...
- Higher Education Finance
- Higher Education Governance
- Higher Education Graduate Outcomes and Destinations
- Higher Education in Africa
- Higher Education in China
- Higher Education in Latin America
- Higher Education in the United States, Historical Evolutio...
- Higher Education, International Issues in
- Higher Education Management
- Higher Education Policy
- Higher Education Research
- Higher Education Student Assessment
- High-stakes Testing
- History of Early Childhood Education in the United States
- History of Education in the United States
- History of Technology Integration in Education
- Homeschooling
- Inclusion in Early Childhood: Difference, Disability, and ...
- Inclusive Education
- Indigenous Education in a Global Context
- Indigenous Learning Environments
- Indigenous Students in Higher Education in the United Stat...
- Infant and Toddler Pedagogy
- Inservice Teacher Education
- Integrating Art across the Curriculum
- Intelligence
- Intensive Interventions for Children and Adolescents with ...
- International Perspectives on Academic Freedom
- Intersectionality and Education
- Knowledge Development in Early Childhood
- Leadership Development, Coaching and Feedback for
- Leadership in Early Childhood Education
- Leadership Training with an Emphasis on the United States
- Learning Analytics in Higher Education
- Learning Difficulties
- Learning, Lifelong
- Learning, Multimedia
- Learning Strategies
- Legal Matters and Education Law
- LGBT Youth in Schools
- Linguistic Diversity
- Linguistically Inclusive Pedagogy
- Literacy
- Literacy Development and Language Acquisition
- Literature Reviews
- Mathematics Identity
- Mathematics Instruction and Interventions for Students wit...
- Mathematics Teacher Education
- Measurement for Improvement in Education
- Measurement in Education in the United States
- Meta-Analysis and Research Synthesis in Education
- Methodological Approaches for Impact Evaluation in Educati...
- Methodologies for Conducting Education Research
- Mindfulness, Learning, and Education
- Mixed Methods Research
- Motivation
- Multiliteracies in Early Childhood Education
- Multiple Documents Literacy: Theory, Research, and Applica...
- Multivariate Research Methodology
- Museums, Education, and Curriculum
- Music Education
- Narrative Research in Education
- Native American Studies
- Note-Taking
- Numeracy Education
- One-to-One Technology in the K-12 Classroom
- Online Education
- Open Education
- Organizing for Continuous Improvement in Education
- Organizing Schools for the Inclusion of Students with Disa...
- Outdoor Play and Learning
- Outdoor Play and Learning in Early Childhood Education
- Pedagogical Leadership
- Pedagogy of Teacher Education, A
- Performance Objectives and Measurement
- Performance-based Research Assessment in Higher Education
- Performance-based Research Funding
- Phenomenology in Educational Research
- Philosophy of Education
- Physical Education
- Play
- Podcasts in Education
- Policy
- Policy Context of United States Educational Innovation and...
- Politics of Education
- Portable Technology Use in Special Education Programs and ...
- Pre-Service Teacher Education
- Problem Solving
- Productivity and Higher Education
- Professional Development
- Professional Learning Communities
- Program Evaluation
- Programs and Services for Students with Emotional or Behav...
- Psychology Learning and Teaching
- Psychometric Issues in the Assessment of English Language ...
- Qualitative Data Analysis Techniques
- Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research Samp...
- Qualitative Research Design
- Quantitative Research Designs in Educational Research
- Race and Affirmative Action in Higher Education
- Reading Education
- Refugee and New Immigrant Learners
- Relational and Developmental Trauma and Schools
- Relational Pedagogies in Early Childhood Education
- Reliability in Educational Assessments
- Religion in Elementary and Secondary Education in the Unit...
- Researcher Development and Skills Training within the Cont...
- Research-Practice Partnerships in Education within the Uni...
- Response to Intervention
- Restorative Practices
- Scale and Sustainability of Education Innovation and Impro...
- Scaling Up Research-based Educational Practices
- School Accreditation
- School Choice
- School Culture
- School District Budgeting and Financial Management in the ...
- School Improvement through Inclusive Education
- School Reform
- Schools, Private and Independent
- School-Wide Positive Behavior Support
- Science Education
- Secondary to Postsecondary Transition Issues
- Self-Regulated Learning
- Self-Study of Teacher Education Practices
- Service-Learning
- Severe Disabilities
- Single Salary Schedule
- Single-sex Education
- Single-Subject Research Design
- Social Context of Education
- Social Justice
- Social Network Analysis
- Social Pedagogy
- Social Science and Education Research
- Social Studies Education
- Sociology of Education
- Standards-Based Education
- Statistical Assumptions
- Student Access, Equity, and Diversity in Higher Education
- Student Assignment Policy
- Student Engagement in Tertiary Education
- Student Learning, Development, Engagement, and Motivation ...
- Student Participation
- Student Voice in Teacher Development
- Sustainability Education in Early Childhood Education
- Sustainability in Early Childhood Education
- Sustainability in Higher Education
- Teacher Beliefs and Epistemologies
- Teacher Collaboration in School Improvement
- Teacher Evaluation and Teacher Effectiveness
- Teacher Preparation
- Teacher Training and Development
- Teacher Unions and Associations
- Teacher-Student Relationships
- Teaching Critical Thinking
- Technologies, Teaching, and Learning in Higher Education
- Technology Education in Early Childhood
- Technology, Educational
- Technology-based Assessment
- The Bologna Process
- The Regulation of Standards in Higher Education
- Theories of Educational Leadership
- Three Conceptions of Literacy: Media, Narrative, and Gamin...
- Tracking and Detracking
- Traditions of Quality Improvement in Education
- Transformative Learning
- Transitions in Early Childhood Education
- Tribally Controlled Colleges and Universities in the Unite...
- Understanding the Psycho-Social Dimensions of Schools and ...
- University Faculty Roles and Responsibilities in the Unite...
- Using Ethnography in Educational Research
- Value of Higher Education for Students and Other Stakehold...
- Virtual Learning Environments
- Vocational and Technical Education
- Wellness and Well-Being in Education
- Women's and Gender Studies
- Young Children and Spirituality
- Young Children's Learning Dispositions
- Young Children's Working Theories
