Education Homeschooling
by
Patricia M. Lines
  • LAST REVIEWED: 19 August 2020
  • LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011
  • DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0046

Introduction

Homeschooling is the education of a school-aged child at a nonschool location. The United States accepts it as an alternative to school attendance under compulsory education laws, as do many other nations. Families have engaged in homeschooling before and after the advent of such laws, but the practice became a focus of interest to educators only late in the 20th century. A homeschooling movement began in the United States in the early 1980s, with numbers swelling from a tiny handful to an estimated 3 percent of the total school-aged population by 2007. Typically, homeschooling parents plan and supervise the activity, sometimes collaborating with other parents. Older students may engage in independent study. Children may study under the supervision of someone other than a parent or guardian at a variety of locations, including a public or private school, a homeschooling learning cooperative, a parks department facility, or an institution of higher learning. Some families adopt a philosophy of “unschooling,” as explained in the section on Education Theory, and allow children to set the pace and pursue their individual interests. Most families use a mix of strategies. Research on homeschooling is in its infancy, compared to research on public and private schools, and it poses unique problems to the researcher. The first entries in this bibliography direct the researcher to practical resources—General Overviews, Anthologies, comprehensive online Bibliographies, academic Journals that have addressed the issue most frequently, and Data Sources. A section on The Social and Political Context examines the interrelated externalities that encourage or discourage homeschooling, including Political Theory and Educational Theory, History, Constitutional Law, and State Legal and Regulatory Requirements. Descriptive Research on homeschooling requires both Qualitative Studies and quantitative methods, discussed under the rubric of Demography and Measurement. Studies of the Effects of Homeschooling include works on Academic Outcomes; studies of Attitudes, Socialization and Civic Participation; outcomes for Minorities, Girls, and Students with Special Needs, and the Post-Secondary Experience of homeschoolers. Finally, this bibliography includes works examining the spread of Homeschooling Worldwide, and a movement among public schools to offer School-Sponsored Home Education Programs. Anyone considering preparing an in-depth scholarly work may also want to examine material by homeschooling advocates and practitioners as well as resources on the broader role of families, private schools, and government in education.

General Overviews

A good overview provides a solid base for an undergraduate student preparing a short paper as well as a starting point for graduate students beginning an intensive study of the subject. It should inform the reader on a broad range of issues, including history, law, demographics, outcomes, and information on the diversity within the homeschooling movement. Lines 1987 provides an early overview of homeschooling at a time when the public was largely unaware of the practice. At the time it was illegal in a few states, and several more states required teacher certification or other requirements that made it difficult for most parents to engage in legal homeschooling. The article introduced the topic to the academic community and was subsequently reprinted in several anthologies. Clark 1994 provides an excellent review of the issue after it had come to the attention of the public nationwide. Lines 2000 revisits the issue and finds that homeschooling had become widely recognized and had gained growing public acceptance. The author also reports on a substantial movement among public schools to offer part-time enrollment or other services to homeschoolers. Ray 2005 provides a summary of who homeschoolers are, stressing the diversity of their beliefs and practices. Cooper and Sureau 2007 focuses considerable attention on relevant political responses and litigation around the country. Berends 2009 shows homeschooling to be still growing, along with growing public acceptance of the practice. Hill 2000 provides an overview that places homeschooling within the context of broad education movements, and predicts that homeschoolers will collaborate to establish a new kind of private school. In addition to the academic material cited here, a researcher may want to look at the diverse and often clashing views of homeschooling advocates.

  • Berends, Mark. 2009. Perspectives on homeschooling. In Handbook of research on school choice. Edited by Mark Behrends, Matthew G. Springer, Dale Ballou, and Herbert J. Walberg, 521–532. New York: Routledge.

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    Includes an estimate of population size and characteristics, and discusses methodological problems in making such estimates. Reviews diverse practices and reasons for homeschooling. Some discussion of legal issues. Excellent discussion of the problems of measuring academic achievement of homeschoolers.

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  • Clark, Charles S. 1994. Home schooling: Is it a healthy alternative to public education? CQ Researcher 4:769–792.

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    In response to congressional interest in homeschooling following the defeat of the Miller Amendment (discussed under History), Clark provides a lively account, including quotations from individuals expressing views for and against homeschooling. The author covers history from the 1800s, state laws, demographics, research findings, and more, producing a well-researched commentary with footnotes, tables, and a bibliography.

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  • Cooper, Bruce, and John Sureau. 2007. The politics of homeschooling. Educational Policy 21.1: 110–131.

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    An excellent overview of recent history and growth of homeschooling as well as identification of major political players concerned with homeschooling. A section on law demonstrates the diversity in judicial approaches, but with some errors, as, for example, a claim that homeschooling was criminal in nearly every state as recently as 1987 (p.117). See the section on Constitutional Law.

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  • Hill, Paul T. 2000. Home schooling and the future of public education. Peabody Journal of Education 75.1–2: 20–31.

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    A general overview focusing on the impact of homeschooling on public schools. The author sees homeschooling as part of a broader movement toward privatization of education. He predicts homeschoolers are likely to create new school-like institutions and that many will accept help from public programs, preferably from charter and voucher programs.

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  • Lines, Patricia M. 1987. An overview of home instruction. Phi Delta Kappan 68.7: 51─57.

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    Reviews homeschooling history, characteristics, practices, legal issues, and data on achievement, with observations about the limitations of the data. This article provides early research-based estimates of the homeschooling population, based on reports from suppliers of curricula and a survey indicating how many homeschoolers use these curricula. An estimated 120,000 to 260,000 children were homeschooled in 1985–1986.

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  • Lines, Patricia M. 2000. Homeschooling comes of age. The Public Interest 140:74–85.

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    The author provides an historical analysis linking the rise of homeschooling to dissatisfaction with public schools. Discusses the weaknesses of available data, including data on academic achievement, but finds no evidence that the average homeschooler suffers academically. She describes diverse curricula, beliefs, and practices among homeschoolers and predicts future growth among ethnic minorities.

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  • Ray, Brian D. 2005. A homeschool research story. In Homeschooling in full view: A reader. Edited by Bruce S. Cooper, 1–19. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

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    A comprehensive overview of who homeschoolers are. Ray, with a Ph.D. in science education, also happens to be a conservative Christian homeschooling parent, thus falling into a group sometimes stereotyped in the literature. His cordial treatment of non-Christian homeschoolers and unschoolers, as when he summarizes Sheffer 1995 (cited under Minorities, Girls, and Students with Special Needs), defies the stereotype.

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Anthologies

Graduate studies of homeschooling need to begin with a general understanding of the topic, to identify areas in need of research and to provide a background for a focused study. A well-constructed anthology provides an excellent start. The earliest such collection appears in Knowles 1988, followed soon by a more comprehensive collection edited by Van Galen and Pitman 1991. Cooper 2005 provides an excellent introduction to the heated debate homeschooling generates among academics, with contributions from those viewing the common school as the bedrock of democracy and those seeing the Bill of Rights as a better bet. Cooper also adds depth by supplementing what the professors have to say with chapters from articulate homeschoolers who blend research-based commentary with a personal perspective. McDowell and Ray 2000 is a double journal issue providing a cross section of views and disciplines.

  • Cooper, Bruce S. 2005. Homeschooling in full view: A reader. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

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    Presents opposing views, including arguments for increased state regulation of homeschooling and for expanded freedom from state regulation. Enriched by contributions from homeschooling parents who offer research-based analyses. Also includes articles on homeschooling and African-American families, children with special needs, a legal analysis, and an examination of college admissions test scores of homeschoolers.

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  • Knowles, Gary J., ed. 1988. Education and Urban Society. 21.1.

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    This volume includes early articles on demographics, attitudes, homeschooling teaching styles and beliefs, and some early work on academic achievement.

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  • McDowell, Susan A., and Brian D. Ray, eds. 2000. Special Issue: Home Education in Context, Practice, and Theory. Peabody Journal of Education 75.1–2.

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    This volume provides perspectives on history, policy, some international comparisons, socialization and academic achievement of homeschooling children, minority-race homeschooling, public school services for students studying off-premises, and homeschooling of special education students.

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  • Van Galen, Jane, and Mary Anne Pitman, eds. 1991. Home schooling: Political, historical, and pedagogical perspectives. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

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    This volume includes contributions representing a variety of academic perspectives on the homeschooling movement in the late 20th century, including demographics, academic achievement, practices and beliefs, history, policy analysis, and law.

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Bibliographies

The best bibliographies are digital in nature and are updated more frequently than print versions. As none of the bibliographies capture all of the academic work generated on the topic, examining more than one source will be necessary for most graduate level in-depth studies. Available digital bibliographies overlap, but each has special strengths. Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), operating under contract with the US Department of Education, and the National Home Education Research Institute (NHERI) provide annotations that may help a student select the sources most relevant to his or her research. The ERIC advanced search engine is the most sophisticated, allowing the user to limit any search to peer-reviewed material and/or any choice of more than forty types of publications (from books to translations). ERIC also allows Boolean searches for any combination of items on authors, titles, and/or keywords. NHERI has plans to add a Boolean search tool in the near future. Kunzman allows a search by a limited number of topics and formats, but does not offer Boolean searches. Kunzman and NHERI offer considerably more citations than does ERIC. ERIC and Kunzman offer free unlimited access while NHERI offers free limited access. ERIC includes copies of material in the public domain.

  • Education Resources Information Center (ERIC).

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    A Boolean search for “homeschooling” or “home schooling” or “home education” yielded more than 880 results in early 2011. Adding “home school” to a search triples the number, but most of the added citations address school-to-home connections. ERIC indexes education journals, the majority of which are peer-reviewed, as well as publications from scholarly, professional and research centers, university presses, governmental agencies, and individuals who submit material.

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  • Kunzman, Robert. Homeschooling Research & Scholarship.

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    An online bibliography with 1,500 entries, including academic and journalistic sources. Organized by topic, author, date, or format. The topics list is limited to twenty topics. Boolean searches are not available. No annotations.

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  • National Home Education Research Institute (NHERI). Home Centered Learning Annotated Bibliography.

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    A searchable database of more than 2,300 annotated entries, including academic and journalistic sources. Plans are to develop a Boolean search tool. Online limited use is free by accessing the “search” link at the main menu. Full use is available for purchase online, on diskette, or in print.

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Journals

The list below reflects only academic peer-reviewed journals from the United States. In this group, the Home School Researcher is the only one to focus exclusively on homeschooling. Education Policy Analysis, Evaluation and Research in Education, Peabody Journal of Education, and Theory and Research in Education all examine wider issues involving education, including theory and policy analysis, and have from time to time paid more attention to homeschooling than other academic periodicals. In addition, many fine journals on homeschooling serve homeschoolers or professional educators that are not cited here.

Data Sources

In the first few decades of the homeschooling movement, virtually no data were available on homeschooling populations or practices. Reliable data on homeschooling are still difficult to locate, requiring researchers to be resourceful. The most recent and rigorously collected data on the demographics and self-reported characteristics of homeschoolers nation-wide are available from the US Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics. However, the sample size for homeschoolers is too small to permit looking at such things as numbers of homeschoolers by state. The US Census Bureau, in its October supplement to the 1994 Current Population Survey, identified homeschooling families, but its procedure missed certain children, as discussed in Bauman 2002 and Isenberg 2007 in the section on Demography and Measurement. The US Census’s more recent Survey of Income and Program Participation in a module on adult well-being identifies respondents by the type of school children attend, including homeschooling. This may be useful for comparisons of homeschooling families with other families on the measures of well-being in that survey. Since 2008, ACT has asked students about the number of years spent in homeschooling when they take its college admissions test. It has developed procedures for making the data available in appropriate circumstances. The College Board, owner of the SAT®, asks students if they are homeschooling, but it is reluctant to make the homeschooling data available to researchers. For an example of past research using SAT data, see Belfield 2005 cited under Academic Outcomes and the discussion in that section. Phi Delta Kappa International annually surveys public attitudes on public schools and has periodically included questions about homeschooling. Some state departments of education collect data from families engaged in homeschooling, including, in some cases, the results of periodic testing. The US Department of Education maintains a directory of departments of education in the fifty states in its Education Resource Organizations Directory. The website of the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) identifies states that collect information from homeschooling families. That site also provides a list of state-level homeschooling associations, useful to researchers wishing to contact homeschoolers in particular states. Colleges and universities also collect data on their students and may be able to identify those that homeschooled prior to admission, as was done in Cogan 2010 and Jones and Gloeckner 2004, cited in the section Academic Outcomes. Finally, Snyder and Dillow 2010 is a convenient compilation, prepared by the National Center for Education Statistics, available in print or online, with data collected from many sources. For a more detailed discussion of some of these data sets, see Isenberg 2007, cited under Demography and Measurement.

The Social and Political Context

The social and political context may facilitate or impede homeschooling, and it may affect the manner in which homeschoolers proceed. For example, the political context may affect the readiness of homeschooling families to respond to researchers or a governmental entity. Serious graduate-level research on the topic must begin with an understanding of this context. An examination of Political Theory will find theorists providing reasons to support and reasons to question the practice. The arguments they raise reflect and influence public attitudes and public policy. Education Theory reviews the main pedagogical approaches to homeschooling. Some of these ideas have inspired many families to turn to homeschooling and to pursue particular models for their programs. Among other disciplines that contribute to an understanding of the contextual background, History traces the development of both political and educational theory, provides clues to how theory has influenced homeschooling, and helps explain current controversies. Examination of Constitutional Law reflects a political theory in action—one developed at the time of the founding of the United States and subsequently expanded through the judiciary. It provides an essential understanding of the extent to which the US Constitution has safeguarded parental choices in education. Finally, an understanding of State Legal and Regulatory Requirements remains essential, as states retain regulatory authority over education under the constitutional framework of the United States.

Political Theory

Some critics of homeschooling argue that, in Western democracies, homeschooling erodes the practical and idealistic goals of building a common ground among educated citizens and, ultimately, is detrimental to the success of a fair and democratic state. For examples, see Apple 2001, Franzosa 1984, Lubienski 2003, and Reich 2002. Others critics disagree, and they rest their case on the historical and constitutional goals of intellectual and religious freedom. They argue that acceptance of homeschooling is critical to sustaining a democratic state that remains pluralistic and fair to many diverse communities. See, for example, Arai 1999, Conroy 2010, Glanzer 2008, and Lines 1994. To enter this debate, a serious graduate student would also benefit from examining those seminal works of political theory that address the state’s role in education, including, for example, works by Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Locke, and Dewey. Finally, any examination of this theoretical debate would be informed by the empirical work cited in the section on Attitudes, Socialization and Civic Participation, especially the work of Smith and Sikkink 1999.

  • Apple, Michael W. 2001. Away with all teachers: The cultural politics of home schooling. In Educating the “right way: Markets, standards, God, and inequality. Edited by Michael Apple W., 171–192. New York: Routledge.

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    Offering an unapologetic view from the “left,” Apple examines the education agenda of the “right.” The author argues that homeschooling erodes the financial and political base for the common school and its goals for social justice. The argument relies quotations from selected conservative Christian leaders, and ignores the practices and beliefs of more liberal homeschoolers, including the unschoolers (see Education Theory).

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  • Arai, A. Bruce. 1999. Homeschooling and the redefinition of citizenship. 7: Education Policy Analysis Archives 27 (September 6).

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    Reviews and critiques the major objections to homeschooling, including those based on the ideal of the common school and how it promotes democratic virtues. Cites research showing homeschoolers active in community affairs. The author urges public schools to adopt a notion of “multidimensional citizenship,” and to recognize that there are many pathways to good citizenship.

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  • Conroy, James C. 2010. The state, parenting, and the populist energies of anxiety. Educational Theory 60.3: 325–340.

    DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-5446.2010.00361.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A vigorous theoretical argument against increased state surveillance of homeschooling. Conroy provides not just theory but also a glimpse into underlying, concrete historical and political experience as it has emerged in the United Kingdom.

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  • Franzosa, Susan Douglas. 1984. The best and wisest parent: A critique of John Holt’s philosophy of education. Urban Education 19.3: 227–244.

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    Starting with John Dewey’s thought that a democracy requires a community to want for all children what the “best and wisest” parents want for their own, Franzosa argues that John Holt’s educational philosophy violates this goal. (See Holt 1981 cited under Educational Theory for a summary of Holt’s views.) Franzosa believes self-interest guides homeschooling and leads to a romantic and rugged individualism.

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  • Glanzer, Perry L. 2008. Rethinking the boundaries and burdens of parental authority over education: A response to Rob Reich’s case study of homeschooling. Educational Theory 58.1: 1–16.

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    A critique of Reich 2002. Taking issue with one of Reich’s points, Glanzer argues that parents’ interests are sufficiently strong that the burden to prove that their homeschooling meets state standards should not be placed on parents.

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  • Lines, Patricia. 1994. Homeschooling: Private choices and public obligations. Rev. Washington, DC: Office of Research, US Department of Education.

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    Argues homeschooling families are not isolationist but remain strongly connected to their communities. She finds homeschoolers falling within an American civic tradition established by the antifederalists, echoing their concern for participation in local affairs, civil rights, and limits to federal power. The paper and responses are reprinted in the Home School Researcher (see Journals in volumes 10.3 and 11.1.

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  • Lubienski, Chris. 2003. A critical view of home education. Evaluation and Research in Education 17.2–3: 167–178.

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    Lubienski examines assertions that homeschooling rests on parents’ rights and/or duties, is educationally effective, and is a reasonable choice in the marketplace of educational choices. He argues that parental rights are not absolute and notes limitations on the research on academic achievement. He fears homeschooling represents extreme privatization of traditional communal matters and threatens the goals of a multicultural society.

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  • Reich, Robert. 2002. Bridging liberalism and multiculturalism in America. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

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    Reich argues that the liberal democratic state ought to protect children’s interest in exercising political and religious freedom that is separable from parental freedom. He recommends state registration, state standards for the homeschooling curriculum (including a requirement for “value pluralism”), and periodic testing of basic skills of homeschooled children. Reich summarizes this work in Cooper 2005 (see Anthologies) and elsewhere.

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Educational Theory

How children learn remains one of the most serious topics in any examination of schools or of homeschooling. While researchers find “chalk and talk” methods ineffective, many schoolteachers continue to practice it, often out of sheer necessity. Theoretically, homeschoolers have a perfect opportunity to abandon such conventional teaching practices, but the extent to which they do so remains largely unstudied. Still, a homeschooling family’s formal or informal theory about learning shapes their approach. A serious study of how educational theory and homeschooling intertwine would examine the ideas of homeschoolers who follow different curricular strategies. John Holt, a former teacher drawing on his experience in school, observed that children learn best when allowed to pursue their interests and they do not learn when marched through a preset curriculum. Holt 1981 concludes that homeschooling provides the best environment for child-directed education, often referred to as unschooling and sometimes as nonschooling. Moore and Moore 1986 recommends homeschooling based on an assessment of child development and readiness. Taylor-Hough 2010 reviews high expectations for homeschooling as set forth by John Taylor Gatto, a former public school teacher and homeschooling advocate, and argues that some homeschooling methods are more likely to meet those expectations than others. Finally, a handful of academic studies have explored how different homeschooling methods may affect student achievement. Cai, et al. 2002 compares responses of religiously motivated homeschooling teachers and public school teachers on a self-reported assessment of teaching style, and finds the former to be somewhat more controlling, a behavior associated with slower academic progress. However, the authors caution that this particular finding could be due to other variables. Bannier 2007 reports on practices in a small group of homeschooling families, including a number of unschoolers, and finds teachers pacing the material to maximize the student’s mastery of it. Merry and Howell 2009 suggests that homeschooling is successful because it facilitates what they call attentive parenting. Duvall 2005 compares the teaching style of parents and teachers in school, both guiding students with similar needs. The author finds that parents adopt teaching styles that resulted in more academically engaged time for students.

  • Bannier, Betsy J. 2007. Home schooling and developmental education: Learning from each other. Research & Teaching in Developmental Education 23.2: 62–68.

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    Relying on a review of the literature and interviews with twelve homeschooling families, including two unschooling families, Bannier suggests that aspects of homeschooling, especially the ability to pace the introduction of new material to meet the student’s interest and readiness, may be an important factor in student learning. Available online through the CBS Interactive Business Network.

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  • Cai, Yi, Johnmarshall Reeve, and Dawn T. Robinson. 2002. Home schooling and teaching style: Comparing the motivating styles of home school and public school teachers. Journal of Educational Psychology 94.2: 372–380.

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    Authors compared religious-oriented homeschooling teachers and public school teachers for teaching style, on a scale that ranged from –18 (extremely controlling) to 18 (extremely autonomy supportive). Homeschooling teachers averaged 2.44, while public school teachers averaged 4.67. The difference was statistically significant, but could be due to variables other than the home school context.

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  • Duvall, Steven L. 2005. The effectiveness of homeschooling students with special needs. In Homeschooling in full view: A reader. Edited by Bruce S. Cooper, 151–166. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

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    Duvall suggests that homeschooling allows for more “academic engaged time.” He describes different teaching styles between teacher in classrooms and parents at home. For example, parents are more likely to sit side by side with students, while classroom teachers stand in front of them.

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  • Holt, John Caldwell. 1981. Teach your own: A hopeful path for education. New York: Delacourt.

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    Holt developed his philosophy of child-directed education in the 1960s, based on his experience as a schoolteacher. Here he extends his thought to advocate homeschooling as possibly the only way to give children the necessary freedom to learn. Revised by Patrick Farenga as Teach Your Own: The John Holt Book of Homeschooling (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Press, 2003).

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  • Merry, Michael, and Charles Howell. 2009. Can intimacy justify home education?. Theory and Research in Education 7.3: 363–381.

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    Authors discuss intimacy, properly defined, as beneficial to a child’s development. They find a homeschooling environment provides better opportunities for intimacy, provided parents engage in “attentive parenting.” Authors note that attentive parents may also nurture a child who attends school, even overcoming negative aspects of schooling, such as bullying.

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  • Moore, Raymond, and Dorothy Moore. 1986. School can wait. 5th ed. Berrien Springs, MI: Hewitt Research Foundation.

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    In their second book among many, the Moores conclude that the nation is rushing children into formal schooling too quickly. They review the literature on child development and recommend that most children not be sent to school prior to age eight. They focus on reading, noting lack of physical and mental readiness of younger children. Originally published in 1979.

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  • Taylor-Hough, Deborah. 2010. Are all homeschooling methods created equal?.

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    This monograph identifies popular homeschooling methods, including classical education and unit studies. It reviews reliance on correspondence schools, school-related umbrella organizations, cooperatives, and computer-based options. The author focuses on unschooling and the Charlotte Mason method as most likely to promote critical thinking among students.

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History

While circumstances may have necessitated educating oneself or one’s child in a remote log cabin, and may still require it in remote locations, a contemporary homeschooling movement arose during the mid-19th century as a matter of choice. The practice became controversial because states, which began adopting compulsory education laws in the 19th century and early 20th century, sometimes made it difficult to homeschool legally. A few states required school attendance only, while several others required a teacher’s certificate for the parent engaged in homeschooling. Carper and Hunt 2007 examines early objections to public education programs, drawing parallels between the rise of Roman Catholic schools, other private denominational schools, conservative Christian schools, and finally homeschooling. Gaither 2008 provides a detailed look at both early homeschooling and the homeschooling movement of today. Stevens 2001 and Somerville 2005 are good sources for information on a well-orchestrated lobbying effort to defeat an amendment to House Resolution 6 (H.R. 6) in 1994, known as the Miller Amendment, which obligated states to require teacher certification for full-time teachers in schools under state agency jurisdiction. Those participating were concerned that this might require teacher certification in homeschooling, depending on state law. The massive lobbying effort brought homeschooling to the attention of Congress and consequently to the entire nation. Tyler and Carper 2000 provides a detailed history of how people in one state managed to end a period of confrontation between homeschoolers and officialdom and move forward cooperatively.

  • Carper, James C., and Thomas C. Hunt. 2007. The dissenting tradition in American education. New York: Peter Lang.

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    Chapter 9 focuses broadly on homeschooling, and ends with special attention to legislative accommodation in South Carolina. This book places homeschooling within a tradition of dissent that led to the rise of Catholic schools in the 19th century, to early struggles of private Protestant schools, and to the rise of Christian day schools in the 20th century.

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  • Gaither, Milton. 2008. Homeschool: An American history. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

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    An examination of broad social movements in the last half of the 20th century and analysis of how they collectively gave birth and shape to a homeschooling movement. Gaither provides detailed descriptions of the homeschooling leadership throughout and a discussion of the cleavage between what he often describes as the culturally left and culturally right homeschoolers.

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  • Somerville, Scott W. 2005. Legal rights for homeschool families. In Home schooling in full view: A reader. Edited by Bruce S. Cooper, 135–149. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

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    Traces changes in laws on homeschooling, including a discussion of the Miller Amendment, which the author believes may have required certification of homeschooling teachers. Includes discussion of a congressional ban on national testing in April 1998. Somerville is with the Christian Home School Legal Defense Association, which played a major role in these events.

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  • Stevens, Mitchell L. 2001. Kingdom of children: Culture and controversy in the homeschooling movement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

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    This volume, while relating the stories of homeschooling families who were interviewed, includes historical events throughout. Chapter 5 provides a good review and analysis of the lobbying campaign to obtain an exemption of homeschooling from H.R. 6 and the Miller Amendment.

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  • Tyler, Zan Peters, and James C. Carper. 2000. From confrontation to accommodation: Home schooling in South Carolina. Peabody Journal of Education 75.1–2: 32–48.

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    An account of a controversy in South Carolina and its successful resolution through accommodation and legislation, also summarized in Carper and Hunt 2007.

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Constitutional Law

The federal Constitution does not mention education, leaving regulation to state governments. However, state laws and regulations must not violate the federal or state constitutional rights of parents, children, or teachers. The US Supreme Court has found that the federal Bill of Rights can trump state regulation in a number of cases. The most frequently cited are Meyer v. Nebraska 1923, Pierce v. Society of Sisters 1925, and Wisconsin v. Yoder 1972. Note that the Court upheld state regulations despite parents’ claims based upon the Bill of Rights in cases involving noneducational activities where a child’s health and welfare may be threatened, as discussed in Good 2005 and Yuracko 2008. Good 2005 comprehensively reviews the Court’s shifting standards for cases involving parental rights to determine the education and upbringing of a child—an essential element in asserting a right to homeschooling—and argues that the Court must adopt a heightened standard of review in cases involving parental rights, a level of review that makes it more difficult for authorities to defend regulation of homeschooling. Yuracko 2008 provides an equally comprehensive review of state and federal constitutional provisions and argues that they require states to regulate homeschooling vigorously.

  • Good, Heather M. 2005. “The forgotten child of our constitution”: The parental free exercise right to direct the education and religious upbringing of children. Emory Law Journal 54:641–679.

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    An articulate and comprehensive review of the US Supreme Court’s treatment of parental rights to direct the education of their children. Good identifies lack of clarity and inconsistencies in the Court’s attempts to define the level of judicial scrutiny required for such cases. She documents the resulting confusion in the lower courts, including the impact on two homeschooling cases.

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  • Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390 (1923).

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    Seeking to promote citizenship among a surging immigrant population, Nebraska banned instruction in any modern foreign language prior to the ninth grade. The Court found such a prohibition violated the teacher’s constitutional right to substantive due process, finding the law “arbitrary and without reasonable relation” to a legitimate state goal.

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  • Pierce v. Society of Sisters, 268 U.S. 510 (1925).

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    The US Supreme Court invalidated Oregon’s compulsory education law, which required attendance at public schools only. The Court recognized that reasonable state regulation would be valid but found that the Oregon law “unreasonably interferes with the liberty of parents and guardians to direct the upbringing and education of children under their control.”

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  • Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972).

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    The Court declared Wisconsin’s compulsory law unconstitutional as applied to the Amish, who sent their children to school through the eighth grade only. The “fundamental interest of parents . . . to guide the religious future and education of their children” trumped the state’s interest. The Court relied heavily on the history, practices, and religious beliefs of the Amish.

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  • Yuracko, Kimberly A. 2008. Education off the grid: Constitutional constraints on home schooling. California Law Review 96.1: 123–184.

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    Yuracko argues that state constitutions require state oversight of homeschooling, although she acknowledges that these provisions obligate the state only to provide free and equal access to education. She also argues that substantive due process under the federal Constitution and provisions for gender equality may require such oversight, especially where homeschooling involves the subordination of females.

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State Legal and Regulatory Requirements

Many academics writing about homeschooling erroneously claim that it was illegal in most states until sometime in the 1980s. A more careful examination of the record reveals that most states have always allowed nonschool instruction. Many state compulsory education laws specified that the law’s requirements could be met with instruction at home; others simply recognized that “equivalent” instruction or “education otherwise” would do. However, legal homeschooling was difficult for many families in states that required certification of homeschooling teachers. In the 1980s, states began removing that and other requirements that the typical parent found difficult to meet. A good history of this legislative transformation has yet to be written. To trace this development, one could begin with Kotin and Aikman 1980, which provides a comprehensive legal history of the development of compulsory education laws up to 1980. By the time of publication, the authors were able to report that thirty-two states and the District of Columbia allowed nonschool instruction. Lines 1985 reported thirty-six states and the District of Columbia allowed nonschool instruction, and many of them specified “home” as an appropriate place for such instruction. Eight, however, required teacher certification. Only one state, New Mexico, specified school attendance as the only way to meet the law’s requirements, and a court case in North Carolina had made legal homeschooling extremely difficult. The remaining states had no provisions, but a court, the attorney general, or the state department of education had ruled that a home school could qualify as a private school under the state statute in these states. A few years later, the US Department of Education 1988 found all states allowing home instruction, and only Michigan and North Dakota requiring teacher certification of homeschooling tutors. The online summary by the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA), although an advocacy organization, is frequently updated and provides an accurate overview of the laws in all states. HSLDA will note official sources that conflict with its interpretation of the law. For example, it reported the position of the California Department of Education, that the only legal homeschooling in California required a certified tutor. HSLDA maintained that home schools could also qualify as private schools, for which certification was not required. In 2008 a California court came to the same conclusion. Schwartz 2008, available in print only, provides a good account of the situation as of its publication date. Based on both of these last two sources, homeschooling is legal in all states and no state requires teacher certification.

  • Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA).

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    HSLDA provides an up-to-date summary of laws in all fifty states, a separate and detailed discussion of the law in each state, and a downloadable file discussing state laws, court decisions, recent amendments to state laws, and other material providing a comprehensive view of the state regulatory environment.

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  • Kotin, Lawrence, and William F. Aikman. 1980. Legal foundations of compulsory school attendance. London and Port Washington, NY: National University Publications, Kennikat Press.

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    Taking an overly grammatical approach, the authors begin with the “basic provision” of state statutes, the provision requiring attendance at public schools. They then treat the choice of private schools as an exception. Appendix B shows that thirty-two states and the District of Columbia allowed nonschool options at the time of their survey of the laws.

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  • Lines, Patricia. 1985. Compulsory education laws and their impact on public and private education. Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States.

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    Reviews the compulsory education laws of the fifty states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, and Guam. Table 8 shows which jurisdictions expressly permit nonschool instruction and which require teacher certification and approval of the program. Due to an apparent printing error, Ohio is missing from table 8. Table 9 analyzes acceptable nonschool options for all jurisdictions.

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  • Schwartz, Brian D. 2008. The law of homeschooling. Dayton, OH: Education Law Association.

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    A relatively recent print copy providing an overview of state laws and regulations. Appendices provide citations and a state-by-state comparison of state requirements for homeschooling. Appendix A identifies twenty-nine states that require student testing, a portfolio review, or some other evidence showing student progress.

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  • US Department of Education 1988. Appendix. In Home schooling: Political, historical, and pedagogical perspectives. Edited by Jane Van Galen and Mary Anne Pitman, 202–210. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

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    This compilation shows most states expressly permitting nonschool options to meet state compulsory education requirements. The remaining states accept home schools as private schools. Many states provided options for meeting legal requirements. For example, in the state of Washington a parent may take forty-five college credits, take a course on home instruction, or teach under the supervision of a certified teacher.

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Descriptive Research

Qualitative Studies provides a good starting point for graduate research on the topic. Qualitative studies are largely descriptive, and they cannot be relied upon to establish generalizations about homeschooling. Still, they have the potential to reveal the full range of homeschooling characteristics and practices, and they may suggest areas for further research. Surveys are also a useful starting point. They can provide an overview of demographic and other self-reported characteristics, and they do allow some generalizations about the population. However, as they depend upon contacting an appropriate person in a randomly selected household, they cannot be relied upon to represent the full range of homeschooling choices. For example, random selection may fail to locate any representatives of an ethnic group, if it is small and underrepresented among homeschoolers. In addition, homeschoolers who refuse to participate in surveys may differ significantly from those who participate. Still, such surveys offer the most objective method for counting and describing homeschooling families. The analysis of surveys is found in the section Demography and Measurement. This research provides the best available answers to the question “how many are there?” that is most often asked together with something about who they are.

Qualitative Studies

Qualitative studies provide a good starting point for any topic for which research is still in its infancy, as is the case with homeschooling. A graduate student working on a new issue within the homeschooling milieu may want to begin with a small qualitative study, and use it to develop a more sophisticated research model. A good example of qualitative research informing subsequent quantitative research is found in Mayberry, et al. 1995. Stevens 2001 and Kunzman 2009 rely on limited qualitative research as a starting point for a discussion of cultural issues raised by homeschooling. Welner 2002 examines the varied combinations of motivations and styles of homeschooling families. Some students may wish to rely on the qualitative studies of others. One unique source can be found in Lande 1996, a collection of stories written by homeschooling parents themselves.

  • Kunzman, R. 2009. Write these laws on your children: Inside the world of conservative Christian homeschooling. Boston: Beacon.

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    Based on in-depth interviews, the author tells the stories of just six homeschooling families and considers how homeschooling might affect American culture.

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  • Lande, Nancy et al. 1996. Homeschooling: A patchwork of days/share a day with 30 homeschooling families. Wynnewood, PA: WindyCreek Press.

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    This collection of self-reported stories about a typical day in the life of each of thirty families is the virtual equivalent of a daylong visit with each family.

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  • Mayberry, Maralee, J. Gary Knowles, Brian Ray, and Stacy Marlow. Home schooling: Parents as educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 1995.

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    Prior to a relatively large survey of families and school officials in Washington, Utah, and Nevada noted in the section on Attitudes, Socialization, and Civic Participation, the authors conducted intensive on-site interviews with thirty-six families. This preliminary research provided a rich base for the design of subsequent research and a solid understanding of the wide range of homeschooling beliefs and practices.

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  • Stevens, Mitchell L. 2001. Kingdom of children: Culture and controversy in the homeschooling movement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

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    This volume relates the stories of homeschooling families, based on in-depth interviews and examination of the literature, to place each family within a particular context. Reveals a wide range of homeschooling attitudes and beliefs.

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  • Welner, Kariane Mari. 2002. Exploring the democratic tensions within parents’ decisions to home-school. Occasional Paper No. 45. New York: National Center for the Study of Privatization in Education, Teachers College, Columbia Univ.

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    Using “purposive sampling” to obtain a range of demographics and beliefs, Welner reports on twenty-six homeschooling families and their ideas about democracy and public schools. Some were communitarian and supported public schools. Others sought autonomy and escape from public school ideologies, although this group voiced no objection to parent-chosen ideologies. She compares each position to that of classical political theorists.

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Demography and Measurement

Demographic studies of homeschooling focus on size, growth, and characteristics of homeschoolers. Isenberg 2007 and Bauman 2002 provide excellent sources for anyone seeking to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the available data underlying this research. Among other problems, all data collection relies on self-reporting to education officials or to a survey, and those who do respond may differ in important ways from those who do not. The best data source may be a state education agency, depending on the state. As recently as 1985, homeschooling was illegal in one state, and teacher certification requirements made it difficult in a handful of other states, as noted in the section on State Legal and Regulatory Requirements. Memories of those days and worries about calls for increased regulation may leave some homeschoolers reluctant to provide any information to any inquiry. Survey data raise additional problems. The first two efforts to estimate homeschoolers—through the 1994 Current Population Survey at the US Census and through the National Center for Education Statistics’ Parent and Family Involvement in Education/Civic Involvement Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program in 1996—produced very different estimates. Bauman 2002 examines these surveys and suggests how methodology and other survey issues might account for the differences. The author also provides an excellent discussion of estimates and growth prior to 1999. He concludes that, regardless of which estimates were used, there was evidence of substantial growth through the 1990s. The reports from the National Center for Education Statistics provide a midpoint estimate, although at a confidence level of 95 percent, the true number could fall within a fairly wide range. Using the midpoint, steady growth is evident. Bielick, et al. 2001 estimate 850,000 students in homeschooling, or 1.7 percent of US students ages five to seventeen, with grade equivalent of kindergarten through grade 12 in the spring of 1999. Princiotta and Bielick 2006 estimate 1.1 million children, or 2.2 percent of the school-aged population in homeschooling in the spring of 2003. Bielick 2008 estimate 1.5 million students, or 2.9 percent of the relevant population, in homeschooling in the spring of 2007. Grady, et al. 2010 report demographic details and technical data supplementing the 2007 estimates.

  • Bauman, K. J. 2002. Home schooling in the United States: Trends and characteristics. Education Policy Analysis Archives 10.26: 1–21.

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    Offers an excellent technical analysis of the problems of determining the homeschooling population and characteristics. Analyzes the 1996 National Household Education Survey and the 1994 Current Population Survey. The former estimated 515,000 to 757,000; the latter, 287,000 to 402,000 children ages six to seventeen, a difference considered too large to be accounted for solely by growth.

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  • Bielick, Stacey. 2008. 1.5 million homeschooled students in the United States in 2007. Issue Brief (NCES 2009-030). Washington, DC: US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

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    For the spring of 2007 authors estimate 1,277,000 to 1,739,000 homeschoolers, at a 95 percent confidence level, based on parents’ responses for a homeschooled child who was enrolled in school no more than twenty-five hours per week. Note that more than 80 percent of homeschooling children were homeschooled only. Authors also report reasons parents chose homeschooling.

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  • Bielick, S., K. Chandler, and S. P. Broughman. 2001. Homeschooling in the United States: 1999. Statistical Analysis Report (NCES 2001-033). Washington, DC: US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

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    Authors report on homeschoolers’ characteristics, trends, reasons for homeschooling, and support from local public schools, based on the National Household Education Surveys for spring 1999. At a confidence level of 95 percent, authors estimated 709,000 to 992,000 homeschoolers were enrolled in school no more than twenty-five hours per week. This report includes technical notes.

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  • Grady, Sarah, Stacey Bielick, and Susan Aud. 2010. Trends in the use of school choice: 1993 to 2007. Statistical Analysis Report (NCES 2010-004). Washington, DC: US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

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    A section of this monograph reports on demographic characteristics of homeschoolers based on the National Household Education Surveys of 2007. Table 5 provides estimates of the percentage of homeschooling children in the nation, by gender, race/ethnicity, grade level, disability status, poverty status, parents’ education, family structure, region, and locale. This report includes extensive technical notes.

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  • Isenberg, Eric J. 2007. What have we learned about homeschooling? Peabody Journal of Education 82.2–3: 387–409.

    DOI: 10.1080/01619560701312996Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    After critiquing multiple sources of data, Isenberg concludes at least 1 million children are homeschooling. Among other conclusions, he finds homeschoolers often use public or private schools to supplement their programs. They choose homeschooling for both religious and educational reasons. Evangelical Protestant families are more likely to choose public or private schools when their community serves large like-minded populations.

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  • Princiotta, D., and S. Bielick. 2006. Homeschooling in the United States: 2003. Statistical Analysis Report (NCES 2006-042). Washington, DC: US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

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    For spring 2003 authors estimate 915,000 to 1,277,000 homeschoolers, at a 95 percent confidence level. The report includes reasons for homeschooling, students’ race/ethnicity, gender, number of children and parents in household, parents’ education and employment, household income, region, and locale. More than 75 percent of respondents used the public library; almost as many used homeschooling catalogues or specialists; 20 percent used the Internet.

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Effects of Homeschooling

Much public interest focuses on the academic and social effects of homeschooling. Quantitative studies are helpful here, but they may not capture the full range of homeschooling choices. The section on Demography and Measurement includes a discussion of the problems identifying the universe and drawing a representative sample—problems that plague any quantitative study. Studies of Academic Outcomes rely on this methodology, and most suggest a homeschooling advantage. However, these studies come with even more caveats than the demographic studies invoke. In addition to the difficulty in obtaining a random sample, comparisons with students in school yield correlations only, and one cannot say whether the same student would do better or worse in homeschooling or in a conventional school. Quantitative work has also been done to assess Attitudes, Socialization, and Civic Participation with similar measurement issues. A handful of studies on Minorities, Girls, and Students with Special Needs, usually conducted with small select samples, suggests that homeschooling may be an advantage to children with unique needs for an individualized curriculum. Studies of Post-Secondary Experience in colleges and in the workforce are also available, and again suggest homeschooling success, with similar caveats.

Academic Outcomes

Research on academic outcomes requires a sophisticated understanding of the limitations of the data. Some researchers have made efforts to obtain large numbers in a survey to overcome these limitations. Rudner 1999 was the first to do so, and critics, such as Welner and Welner 1999, quickly pointed out several biases in the author’s sample. Ray 2010 marks an effort to mitigate some of those biases, by drawing from more diverse sources for access to students. Even so, all such research on academic outcomes suffers from an inability to obtain a true random sample of homeschoolers, as discussed in the section on Demography and Measurement. Were a random sample possible, it would continue to suffer from difficulty in controlling for demographic variables known to correlate with achievement. Belfield 2005 examines nationwide SAT® scores, which theoretically should provide an unbiased look at all students taking the college admissions test. However, homeschoolers taking the test were fewer than would be expected based on estimates of the homeschooling population. Belfield’s reliance on a questionnaire on the application form involved many factors that may have affected the findings. For example, some homeschooling students, especially in states where home schools are considered private schools, may have provided a school name for their home program, rather than identifying themselves as homeschoolers. A few students in school may have said they were homeschoolers based on limited earlier exposure. A trend among homeschooling students to return to high school just prior to college may have influenced findings. The regional coverage of the test used may also influence the results. Perhaps the most reliable studies involve those with a clearly delimited scope, such as that of Cogan 2010 or Jones and Gloeckner 2004. Although limited to small localized populations, such studies may in the end offer better insights than larger studies, which rely on volunteers and on volunteered information. With those caveats in mind, most of this research shows the average homeschooling student posting higher test scores than other children in the same grade level (a difference possibly accounted for by other factors). Cogan 2010 finds former homeschoolers enrolled at a mid-sized university receiving higher test scores than their peers from public schools and Catholic schools, but not higher scores than those who had attended non-Catholic private schools. Despite these studies, we cannot say whether the same students would do better or worse with a different school experience.

  • Belfield, Clive R. 2005. Home schoolers: How well do they perform on the SAT for college admissions? In Homeschooling in full view: A reader. Edited by Bruce S. Cooper, 167–177. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

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    The author examines the 2001 SAT® scores of more than 6,000 students who self-identified as being homeschooled on the test application form. Their mean scores were 0.4 standard deviations above those of peers from public schools, somewhat above those of peers from private religious schools, and somewhat below those of peers from private independent schools. The author also provides selected characteristics for both groups, including religious affiliation.

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  • Cogan, Michael F. 2010.Exploring academic outcomes of homeschooled students. Journal of College Admissions 208 (Summer): 18–25.

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    A statistical examination of ACT® scores, college grades, and retention rates of former homeschoolers (n = 76, or about 1 percent of the student body) at a mid-sized university. The homeschoolers showed statistically significant higher scores and first-year grade averages than other students at the university. Differences in retention rates and graduate rates were not statistically significant.

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  • Jones, Paul, and Gene Gloeckner. 2004. First-year college performance: A study of home school graduates and traditional school graduates. Journal of College Admission (Spring): 17–20.

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    Study of ACT scores of fifty-five home school graduates and fifty-three matching “traditional” high school graduates (with no distinction between public or private school graduates). The authors found no statistically significant differences between the two groups. They noted homeschooled students averaged slightly higher scores. Authors also found no significant difference between the two groups in first-year college performance.

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  • Ray, Brian. 2010. Academic achievement and demographic traits of homeschool students: A nationwide study. Academic Leadership: The Online Journal 8.1.

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    Ray obtained scores for more than 11,500 self-identified volunteering homeschoolers, taught by a parent at least 51 percent of the time for the grade level being tested. Combined results from several different tests showed them averaging above the 80th percentile in reading, language, and math. About 7,000 tested for science or social studies and also averaged above the 80th percentile.

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  • Rudner, Lawrence M. 1999. Achievement and demographic characteristics of home school students:1998. Education Policy Analysis Archives 7.8.

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    In this much-cited study, Rudner obtained test score data for more than 20,000 homeschooling students, through Bob Jones University’s testing service. He reported median scores falling within the 70th to 80th percentile. He also reports characteristics of the homeschoolers in the study.

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  • Welner, Kariane Mari, and Kevin G. Welner. 1999. Contextualizing homeschooling data: A response to Rudner. Education Policy Analysis Archives 7 (April).

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    An early critique of Rudner. Observes the sample is biased toward homeschoolers utilizing the Bob Jones University curricular materials, toward white, conservative Christian homeschoolers, and toward volunteers. The authors find the Rudner study valuable but unreliable if used to establish homeschooling characteristics or test scores in the wider population.

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Attitudes, Socialization, and Civic Participation

Research on attitudes, socialization, and civic participation of homeschoolers is considerably more difficult than ascertaining the population, growth, or academic achievement of the same population. Still, it is extremely important in its potential to inform the debate centering on the benefits or harms of homeschooling to civic life, as discussed in the section on Political Theory. Medlin 2000 reviews the literature on socialization, most of which shows homeschooling children having frequent contact with members of the community. McDowell 2004 provides a more current review of the literature and reaches the same conclusion. McDowell 2004 and Smedley 1992 provide examples of such studies, the former based on interviews and the latter based on observation of children’s behavior. Mayberry, et al. 1995 reports on a broad range of social activities and attitudes of homeschooling families. Shyers 1992 constructs a tidy experiment with blind observers, who rated homeschooling students as better behaved in group situations, compared with other students in the same room. Smith and Sikkink 1999 use a national survey that included questions about participation in the community, and find homeschooling parents more active than other parents. These diverse studies point in the same direction: Homeschooling students do have frequent contacts outside the home and behave in socially appropriate ways in group situations, while their parents are engaged in activities in the larger community.

  • Mayberry, Maralee, J. Gary Knowles, Brian Ray, and Stacy Marlow. 1995. Home schooling: Parents as educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

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    Analysis of attitudes and beliefs based on 1,497 (out of 6,064) survey responses from homeschooling families and 118 (out of 307) responses from school superintendents in Washington, Utah, and Nevada. Includes information on the resources homeschoolers use and how they and school officials learn about the law. Authors report a large divergence between families’ and school superintendents’ beliefs about homeschooling.

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  • McDowell, Susan A. 2004. But what about socialization? Answering the perpetual home schooling question. Nashville: Philodeus Press.

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    McDowell provides a review of the literature on socialization and results of her interviews with a small group of families. In her own study she finds students had frequent contact with individuals outside the family through church organizations, scouting, and other youth organizations and programs.

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  • Medlin, Richard G. 2000. Homeschooling and the question of socialization. Peabody Journal of Education 75.1–2: 107–123.

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    An excellent review of the literature (prior to 2000) of the research on homeschoolers’ socialization, quality and quantity of community contacts, behavioral development, and community participation of adults who were previously home educated.

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  • Shyers, Larry E. 1992. A comparison of social adjustment between home and traditionally schooled students. Home School Researcher 8.3: 1–8.

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    In a study of seventy homeschooled children and seventy matched school children, Shyers measured social adjustment based on scoring by two observers, both unaware of any child’s school status, on an independently developed checklist of ninety-seven problem behaviors. Home schooled children displayed fewer problem behaviors and were much less often described as aggressive, noisy, or competitive.

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  • Smedley T. C. 1992. Socialization of home school children. Home School Researcher 8.3: 9–16.

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    A study of twenty home-educated children and seventeen traditionally educated students. The author found homeschooled children to be more mature and better socialized based on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale.

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  • Smith, Christian, and David Sikkink. 1999. Is private schooling privatizing?. First Things 92:16–20.

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    Based on the National Household Education Survey of 1996, the authors report that families with children in private schools or home schools participate in civic affairs more frequently than families with children in public schools. They argue that such pluralism is essential to a vigorous democracy and that the common school ideal, in contrast, requires standardization and threatens such pluralism.

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Minorities, Girls, and Students with Special Needs

Parents of children facing issues at school because of race, color, gender, physical handicaps, or learning disabilities sometimes turn to homeschooling. Their reasons are diverse and often mirror the reasons of other homeschooling parents. In addition, however, they almost always seek to meet a child’s unique educational needs. A number of studies of very small groups of students suggest that these parents are succeeding. Studies of larger numbers would be extremely useful to clarify these findings. Ensign 2000 follows the progress of six homeschooled students with special needs and concludes that the one-on-one teaching environment provided at home allows them to achieve higher proficiency levels more quickly than had they been in school. In an example of a type of study that should be replicated in other contexts, Duvall, et al. 2004 and Duvall 2005 report on two small studies of homeschooling students with special needs, and compares them with similar students in schools. Based on methodical observations of the mothers teaching at home and teachers in school, Duvall finds that homeschooling methods yield more academically engaged time for the student. The author believes this factor accounts for higher math and reading scores for the homeschooled students. McDowell 2000 provides evidence that racial/ethnic minorities may turn to homeschooling in the future. Sheffer 1995 provides convincing evidence, based on anecdotal accounts and interviews, that the teen-aged girls in her study gained confidence and assurance through homeschooling, while their peers in school lost those qualities.

  • Duvall, Steven L. 2005. The effectiveness of homeschooling students with special needs. In Homeschooling in full view: A reader. Edited by Bruce S. Cooper, 151–166. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

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    Duvall reviews the literature relating to parents’ ability to help their children with special needs and reports on his research comparing homeschooling students with matched students in public schools. He finds that education attainment of the homeschooling parent is unrelated to the student’s success. Parents with high school degrees and those with some college experience or more are equally successful.

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  • Duvall, Steven F., Joseph C. Delquadri, and D. Lawrence Ward. 2004. A preliminary investigation of the effectiveness of homeschool instructional environment for students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Review 33.1: 140–158.

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    Authors conducted a preliminary investigation of the effectiveness of homeschool instructional environments for two students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]. Authors found the homeschool students were academically engaged about two times as often as two matched public school students. The homeschooled students achieved somewhat greater gains in reading and math.

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  • Ensign, Jacque. 2000. Defying the stereotypes of special education: Home school students. Peabody Journal of Education 75.1–2: 147–158.

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    Reviews the literature examining the experience in schools and at home for children with special needs. Reports on progress of six homeschooled children, four with learning disabilities and three identified as gifted (one child was both). All achieved greater academic gains than would be expected were they in school. The education background of parents varied widely.

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  • McDowell, Susan A., Annette R. Sanchez, and Susan S. Jones. 2000. Looking at home schooling through a multicultural lens. Peabody Education Journal 75.1–2: 124–146.

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    Reviews the literature on homeschooling experiences of racial minorities and the results of a survey on college students’ perception of homeschooling. The sample consisted of students at two institutions. The authors report that a larger proportion of non-Caucasian students said “yes” or “maybe” when asked whether they would homeschool their own children in the future, compared to Caucasian students.

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  • Sheffer, S. 1995. A sense of self: Listening to homeschooled adolescent girls. Portsmouth, NH: Boyton/Cook Heinemann.

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    After reviewing research suggesting a loss of self-confidence as girls enter adulthood, Sheffer reports on interviews with fifty-five older adolescent girls. The author finds homeschooled girls, in contrast, display self-confidence and self-assurance. Quotations from the interviews add depth to this descriptive report.

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Post-Secondary Experience

Little research is available on how former homeschooling children fare in the adult world. This section looks at studies that examine the homeschooling student’s transition to adulthood. Bolle, et al. 2007 provides a review of the research on the adjustments homeschooling students face in their first year in college and provides an in-depth look at the experiences of six such students. The authors find adjustment to the new environment presented some unique issues, but they note that traditionally educated students experienced similar transitional issues. Ray 2004 reports results of a nonrandom survey of more than 5,000 young adults with several years of homeschooling experience. Ray reports the respondents were happy with that experience and many planned to homeschool their own children. That finding could be biased if the adults unhappy with their homeschooling experience failed to follow the web-based discussions that would have informed them of the opportunity to participate in the survey. Marean, et al. 2005 provides evidence of success among homeschoolers seeking admittance to elite post-secondary institutions. Webb 1999 conducted in-depth interviews with young adults who had homeschooled as children and finds that they looked favorably on their past experience. As the number of former homeschooling students grows, household surveys may yield more robust data revealing how former homeschooling children have adjusted to adult life, compared to their peers who attended public or private school. Some clue can be found also in studies of college admissions test scores and average grades in college, three of which are cited under Academic Outcomes—the studies in Jones and Gloeckner 2004, Cogan 2010, and Belfield 2005. In general, homeschoolers performed adequately or better on college admissions tests and in college courses.

  • Bolle, Mary Beth, Roger D. Wessel, and Thalia M. Mulvihill. 2007. Transitional experiences of first-year college students who were homeschooled. Journal of College Student Development 48.6: 637–654.

    DOI: 10.1353/csd.2007.0059Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Based on a review of the research, the authors found homeschooling student adjusting to college life in much the same manner as other students. Based on their in-depth interviews with six formerly homeschooled students, they outlined areas where homeschooling students had difficulty in the transition, but noted that traditionally educated students faced similar issues.

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  • Marean, Joy, Marc Ott, and Matthew J. Rush. 2005. Homeschooled students and the Ivy League: Gaining admissions to highly selective universities in the United States. In Homeschooling in full view: A reader. Edited by Bruce S. Cooper, 179–197. Greenwich CT: Information Age Publishing.

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    The authors report results of a small survey of admissions officers at several elite post-secondary institutions and their treatment of homeschooled applicants, including the number of known homeschooling students admitted to the institution.

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  • Ray, Brian D. 2004. Home educated and now adults. Salem, OR: NHERI Publications.

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    Ray reports on 5,254 young adults who had been home educated for at least seven years. Respondents reported higher post-secondary education rates than the same age group in the general population, high satisfaction with homeschooling, and high rates of civic involvement. The return rate is unknown because the survey was available online.

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  • Webb, Julie. 1999. Those unschooled minds: Home-educated children grow up. Nottingham, UK: Educational Heretics Press.

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    Discussion based on interviews with twenty adults, in their 20s and 30s, who had some homeschooling experience, to learn what they were doing as adults and obtain their thoughts on their homeschooling experience.

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Homeschooling Worldwide

The homeschooling movement that began in the United States is spreading to other nations. While no in-depth overviews of this development exist, Glenn 2005 provides a summary of the laws in forty other countries. In addition, scholars have examined the experience in many individual countries. These studies help cast light on how families react to different legal and social environments. Where homeschooling has historically enjoyed a cordial reception, as in Australia, Britain, or the Canadian province of Quebec, scholars may go deeper to examine the philosophical and practical differences between learning at home and at school (see Brabant, et al. 2004; Gabb 2005; Rothermal 2003; and Taylor and Petrie 2000). Other studies such as Spiegler 2009 and Villalba 2009 cast light on how a severely restrictive legal environment affects homeschoolers. Beck 2002 provides a fascinating account of how a democratic country that promotes a Lutheran religious agenda in public schools continues to lose students to homeschooling for religious reasons, even among Lutherans.

  • Beck, Christian W. 2002. Home schooling and future education in Norway. European Education 34.2: 26–36.

    DOI: 10.2753/EUE1056-4934340226Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This historical account focuses on legal and economic issues within the context of Norway’s position on homeschooling. Norway provides Lutheran-based public schooling, and allows private schools and homeschooling, amidst much controversy. Interestingly, conservative Lutherans mounted the most recent legal challenge to the regulation of homeschooling, after withdrawing a child from public school because he was not excused from dancing lessons.

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  • Brabant, C., S. Bourdon, and F. Jutras. 2004. L’École à la maison au Québec: L’Expression d’un choix familial marginal. Enfances, Familles, Générations 1.1.

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    Examination of parental reasons for homeschooling, based on survey responses. More than five hundred families received a mailed survey and an unknown number received one through redistribution by associations; 203 families responded. Respondents attached “very great importance” either to religious goals (three items) or to the child’s characteristics and experience (three items).

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  • Gabb, Sean. 2005. Homeschooling: A British perspective. In Homeschooling in full view: A reader. Edited by Bruce S. Cooper, 199–227. Greenwich CT: Information Age Publishing.

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    A thorough overview of homeschooling in Britain, including its history from the 16th century to the present, the legal context, estimates of numbers, reasons for homeschooling, curricula, and current trends. Britain’s first compulsory education law in 1944 required school attendance or that the child be “otherwise educated.” Homeschooling remains unregulated in Britain, although some parties, such as teachers’ associations, are calling for regulation.

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  • Glenn, Charles. 2005. Homeschooling and compulsory state schooling. In Homeschooling in full view: A reader. Edited by Bruce S. Cooper, 60–65. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

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    As part of a longer piece, Glenn provides a summary of compulsory education or compulsory schooling laws in thirty-four countries (not including the United States).

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  • Rothermal, Paula. 2003. Can we classify motives for home education? Evaluation and Research in Education 17.2–3: 74–89.

    DOI: 10.1080/09500790308668293Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Rothermal distributed an estimated 5,000 questionnaires to homeschooling families in England and Wales and received 1,000 back. Based on a “preliminary analysis” of 419 responses. Rothermal finds that, unlike for homeschoolers in the United States, religious belief is rarely mentioned as influencing the decision to homeschool. Includes a brief history of recent homeschooling issues in England and Wales.

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  • Spiegler, Thomas. 2009. Why state sanctions fail to deter home education: An analysis of home education in Germany and its implications for home education policies. Theory and Research in Education 7.3: 297–309.

    DOI: 10.1177/1477878509343738Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Homeschooling has been illegal in Germany since the advent of its first compulsory schooling law in 1619. Nonetheless, Spiegler estimates 600 to 1,000 children are homeschooled in Germany, often with the tacit consent of local officials. In addition, many homeschooling families leave Germany to homeschool in friendlier jurisdictions.

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  • Taylor, Lesley Ann, and Amanda Petrie. 2000. Home education regulations in Europe and recent U.K. research. Journal of Education 75.1–2: 49–70.

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    An examination of the laws affecting homeschooling in the United Kingdom and France, and to some extent, other European countries. It includes a short review of the research in the United Kingdom. Authors include names, addresses, and a description of support organizations in the United Kingdom and France.

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  • Villalba, Cynthia M. 2009. Home-based education in Sweden: Local variations in forms of regulation. Theory and Research in Education 7.3: 277–296.

    DOI: 10.1177/1477878509343737Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Legal in Sweden since the introduction of compulsory education laws in 1842, homeschooling faces changing regulations and local hostility and confusion about the law. Villalba reviews six cases in which families failed to obtain approval for homeschooling. Only one prevailed after years of litigation.

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School-Sponsored Home Education Programs

Homeschooling is also sometimes used to refer to school enrollment while the student stays off-site. Private schools pioneered this type of program, offering curricular materials and other support to families who kept their children at home. The practice closely resembles homeschooling, as the learning takes place off school premises, but there may be important differences. Especially when a public school offers such enrollment, the school has a responsibility to abide by the rules governing the use of public funds. Private schools face no such restrictions, and many have a long history of encouraging and enrolling homeschooling students. In the 1980s, a handful of public schools offered limited opportunities to homeschoolers. They offered assistance through part-time enrollment, loans of textbooks and materials, access to extracurricular opportunities, or other support to homeschoolers, as related in Holt 1983. In the 1990s, more public schools experimented with, and expanded, such programs. Charter schools, in particular, rushed into the “business.” The growth of the Internet has also been a factor, allowing a wide variety of online learning. Ellis 2008 provides an overview of that movement. Huerta and González 2004, in a study that has since been republished in more than one textbook, examines online learning through charter schools as well as charter schools that support parent-supervised education at home, with a focus on California and Pennsylvania. Klein 2006 focuses on online learning in a network of charter schools in California. Lines 2003 discusses a state without charter legislation, and shows how even in such states, resourceful public school teachers will find a way to run special programs for homeschoolers. Every article cited here recognizes serious policy issues with these public–private arrangements. Public schools face constitutional issues if public funds are used to support religious education at home or in other ways violates rules that they must follow. The most frequently mentioned issue involves school finance, especially when the usual formula for per pupil state support allows a public school to take in more state funds than it spends on the program, thus, in effect, making a profit on homeschooling families.

  • Ellis, Kathleen. 2008. Cyber charter schools: Evolution, issues, and opportunities in funding and localized oversight. Education Horizons 86.3: 142–152.

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    An overview of funding and oversight issues for districts with cyber charter schools. Discusses various funding options that take the realities of cyber education into account.

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  • Holt, John. 1983. Schools and home schools: A fruitful partnership. Phi Delta Kappan 64.6: 391─394.

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    In this significant historical piece one of the earliest advocates for the contemporary homeschooling movement describes how a handful of school districts enrolled homeschooling students part-time or provided access to libraries and other school resources. He recommends states adopt laws allowing this practice, with appropriate state financial assistance to districts that offer such help.

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  • Huerta, Luis A., and Maria Fernanda González. 2004. Cyber and home school charter schools: How states are defining new forms of public schooling. New York: National Center for the Study of Privatization in Education, Teachers College, Columbia Univ.

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    The authors examine chartered cyberschools—those relying primarily on computer-based learning in real time or through lesson packages, and chartered home-based schools, where parents set goals and monitor student activity and achievement. They find both types attract formerly homeschooled students. They raise issues of accountability, funding, and other potential problems with publicly sponsored charter schools following these models.

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  • Klein, Carol. 2006. Virtual charter schools and home schooling. Youngstown, NY: Cambria Press.

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    Reviews extant research on virtual charter schools. Provides quantitative and qualitative analyses of the California Virtual Academies (CAVA), a network of six charter schools providing K–12 curricula to homeschooling families, utilizing questionnaires, on-site interviews, and examination of available school data, including standardized test scores. Note, an online survey of parents yielded only a 10 percent response rate (p. 54).

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  • Lines, Patricia. 2003. Support for home-based study: Pioneering partnerships between public schools and families who instruct their children at home. ERIC Clearinghouse on Education Management. Eugene: Univ. of Oregon.

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    Washington State does not have a charter school law. Nonetheless, this study finds local districts offering enrollment to students staying at home. This descriptive study, based on visits several years apart, documents growth in the number both of such programs and of students using them. A major problem involved determining appropriate state per pupil support for such programs.

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