Blended Learning

by

Charles R. Graham

• LAST REVIEWED: 21 April 2021
• LAST MODIFIED: 30 August 2016
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0156

Introduction

Blended learning is a term that refers to a combination of traditional face-to-face instruction and technology-mediated instruction. The term emerged and gained popularity in the early 2000s. Less commonly used terms in the research are “hybrid” and “mixed-mode” learning environments. In the early 21st century, thousands of articles, books, chapters, and industry reports have been published on the topic. Blended learning is being implemented widely in corporate training, higher education, and K-12 environments. It is often stated that blended learning combines the best of both the online and traditional learning worlds. However, the opposite can also be true, when blends don’t take advantage of the strengths of the different modalities but rather build on their limitations. It is important to understand that this is an emerging domain of research and practice, and theory, models, and best practices are still evolving quite fluidly. This bibliography provides annotations of seminal articles and books in the domain as well as citations to reports that document trends and growth of blended learning.

Early Seminal Articles

The three articles listed in this section are early seminal articles that researchers and practitioners interested in blended learning should read. They are some of the most cited manuscripts related to blended learning because they have helped to establish a vision for what blended learning is and how it can be used to improve the teaching and learning enterprise.

• Dziuban, C. D., J. L. Hartman, and P. D. Moskal. 2004. Blended learning. EDUCAUSE Research Bulletin 7:1–12.

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  This research bulletin describes and makes a case for blended learning in higher education and is geared primarily at an audience of institutional leaders. The report presents early institutional evaluation data comparing success rates, withdrawal rates, faculty satisfaction numbers, and enrollment growth in blended courses.

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• Garrison, D. R., and H. Kanuka. 2004. Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education 7:95–105.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.02.001Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article discusses the transformational potential of blended learning to positively impact higher education. The authors introduce the Community of Inquiry framework and focus on the importance of effectively integrating online and face-to-face components, and on key elements that will allow institutions to realize the transformational potential of blended learning.

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• Graham, C. R. 2006. Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions. In The Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs. Edited by C. J. Bonk and C. R. Graham, 3–21. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

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  This chapter answers basic questions about blended learning and presents a framework for looking at dimensions of interaction in face-to-face and distributed learning. It identifies examples of blends at the activity, course, program, and institutional levels. It establishes criteria for distinguishing between enabling, enhancing, and transforming blends.

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Defining Blended Learning

The articles in this section provide an overview of how blended learning is being defined in the literature, including early conceptualizations (Osguthorpe and Graham 2003), frustrations with the limitations of existing definitions (Oliver and Trigwell 2005), historical perspectives on the Sloan Consortium’s efforts to define blended learning (Picciano 2009), and efforts to synthesize different elements of definitions of blended learning (Graham 2013; Sharpe, et al. 2006).

• Graham, C. R. 2006. Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions. In Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. Edited by C. J. Bonk and C. R. Graham, 3–21. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

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  This chapter reviews the early literature in blended learning and identifies three major definitions of blended learning that include combining instructional modalities, combining instructional methods, and combining online and face-to-face instruction. The author makes an argument for defining blended learning systems broadly as combining face-to-face instruction with computer-mediated instruction.

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• Graham, C. R. 2013. Emerging practice and research in blended learning. In Handbook of distance education. Edited by M. G. Moore, 333–350. New York: Routledge.

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  This chapter synthesizes current issues related to existing definitions of blended learning. Four potential dimensions to the definition are addressed. The author makes a case for defining the boundaries of blended learning broadly across organizations while allowing individual organizations to more tightly structure definitions for local use.

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• Norberg, A., and I. Jahnke. 2014. “Are you working in the kitchen?”: European perspectives on blended learning. In Blended learning: Research perspectives. Vol. 2. Edited by A. G. Picciano, C. D. Dziuban, and C. R. Graham, 251–267. New York: Routledge.

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  This chapter, written by European researchers, explores European perspectives on the definition and use of the term blended learning. Thirty-three experts from nine countries responded to inquiries by the authors. In general, European researchers are more skeptical about the term, and they tend to use different terms for what might be referred to as blended learning in North America.

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• Oliver, M., and K. Trigwell. 2005. Can “blended learning” be redeemed? E-Learning 2.1: 17–26.

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  This early article presents a coherent argument for limitations of the prevailing definitions of blended learning that focus on physical rather than pedagogical attributes. An argument is made for the idea that learning gains attributed to blended learning might be rooted in the more pedagogically grounded variation theory.

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• Osguthorpe, R. T., and C. R. Graham. 2003. Blended learning environments: Definitions and directions. Quarterly Review of Distance Education 4.3: 227–234.

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  This brief article contains an early definition of blended learning and includes potential design goals, including (1) pedagogical richness, (2) access to knowledge, (3) social interaction, (4) personal agency, (5) cost effectiveness, and (6) ease of revision. It introduces five case studies of blended learning that follow the lead article.

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• Picciano, A. G. 2009. Blending with purpose: The mutimodal model. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 13.1: 7–18.

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  This article provides historical perspective on the Sloan Consortium’s (now the Online Learning Consortium) development of an operational definition for blended learning. The definition involved (1) the intentional integration of in-class and online activities, and (2) the reduction of in-class seat time to distinguish it from courses where online resources are just a supplement to traditional face-to-face instruction. Available online.

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• Sharpe, R., G. Benfield, G. Roberts, and R. Francis. 2006. The undergraduate experience of blended e-learning: A review of UK literature and practice. York, UK: Higher Education Academy.

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  This report looks broadly at undergraduate experiences with blended learning in the United Kingdom. The authors identify eight dimensions that “embrace the possibilities” of blended environments. They also identify three characteristics of what they call “blended e-learning.”

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Literature Reviews

This section of the bibliography presents several formal literature reviews that have been done on topics related to blended learning. Drysdale, et al. 2013; Halverson, et al. 2012; and Halverson, et al. 2014 represent systematic quantitative approaches to analyzing the literature base. Some reviews are more broad and comprehensive (Vignare 2007, Graham 2013) while others focus on a more narrow context for blended learning, such as business disciplines (Arbaugh, et al. 2009), higher education in the United Kingdom (Sharpe, et al. 2006), or student roles (Shivetts 2011).

• Arbaugh, J. B., M. R. Godfrey, M. Johnson, B. L. Pollack, B. Niendorf, and W. Wresch. 2009. Research in online and blended learning in the business disciplines: Key findings and possible future directions. The Internet and Higher Education 12.2: 71–87.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.06.006Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This review looks at research in the business disciplines. Blended learning articles within the domain are identified and are further broken down into the subdisciplines of management, information systems, accounting, marketing, operations/supply chain management, finance, and economics. Journals within the discipline that have published blended learning research are also identified.

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• Drysdale, J. S., C. R. Graham, L. R. Halverson, and K. J. Spring. 2013. Analysis of research trends in dissertations and theses studying blended learning. The Internet and Higher Education 17.1: 90–100.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This review reports on a thematic analysis of the research questions, methodological trends, and organizational context used in all English-language dissertations and theses found in ProQuest through the year 2011.

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• Graham, C. R. 2013. Emerging practice and research in blended learning. In Handbook of distance education. 3d ed. Edited by M. G. Moore, 333–350. New York: Routledge.

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  The chapter highlights definitions and prevalent models of blended learning practice in K-12, higher education, and corporate contexts. It overviews the current state of blended learning research, starting with theoretical developments and moving to research related to learning effectiveness, learner satisfaction, faculty satisfaction, access and flexibility, and cost-effectiveness.

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• Halverson, L. R., C. R. Graham, K. J. Spring, and J. S. Drysdale. 2012. An analysis of high impact scholarship and publication trends in blended learning. Distance Education 33.3: 381–413.

  DOI: 10.1080/01587919.2012.723166Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This review does an analysis of publication trends related to blended learning. It uses citation counts as a metric for identifying the most cited journal articles, book chapters, books, white papers, and authors. It also identifies journals that have published the top-cited research in blended learning.

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• Halverson, L. R., C. R. Graham, K. J. Spring, J. S. Drysdale, and C. R. Henrie. 2014. A thematic analysis of the most highly cited scholarship in the first decade of blended learning research. The Internet and Higher Education 20:20–34.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2013.09.004Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This review is a follow-up to Halverson, et al. 2012 and does a thematic analysis of the research questions and inquiry methodologies used in the top-cited blended learning research articles.

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• Sharpe, R., G. Benfield, G. Roberts, and R. Francis. 2006. The undergraduate experience of blended e-learning: A review of UK literature and practice. York, UK: Higher Education Academy.

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  This review explores scenarios and case studies of blended learning and particularly student experiences with e-learning at the university level. The authors use literature to support their exploration of educational rationales for blended learning, evaluating and monitoring blended learning, and the learner experience in blended learning contexts.

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• Shivetts, C. 2011. E-learning and blended learning: The importance of the learner–A research literature review. International Journal on E-Learning 10.3: 331–337.

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  This somewhat brief literature review looks at the role of the student in an e-learning or blended learning context.

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• Vignare, K. 2007. Review of literature: Blended learning: Using ALN to change the classroom—Will it work? In Blended learning: Research perspectives. Edited by A. G. Picciano and C. D. Dziuban, 37–63. Needham, MA: Sloan Consortium.

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  This review organizes the blended learning research literature around the five Sloan-C Five Pillars of Quality Online Education: learning effectiveness, faculty satisfaction, student satisfaction, access, and cost-effectiveness.

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Theory

Because blended learning is a relatively new domain of research, there are few theoretical frameworks that focus on the core elements unique and/or central to blended learning. Graham, et al. 2014 contains the most comprehensive analysis of theories used in blended learning to-date. The other articles listed in this section represent explicit attempts to articulate theoretical frameworks that apply directly to blended learning environments. The Community of Inquiry framework (Garrison, et al. 2010) was initially developed for investigating online learning experiences and is the most widely used theory in the blended learning literature.

• Garrison, D. R., T. Anderson, and W. Archer. 2010. The first decade of the community of inquiry framework: A retrospective. The Internet and Higher Education 13.1–2: 5–9.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.003Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The Community of Inquiry (COI) framework is used for investigating the educational experience in face-to-face, fully online, and blended learning contexts. The authors describe the theoretical framework and the research that has been done using the framework over its first decade of existence.

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• Graham, C. R., C. R. Henrie, and A. S. Gibbons. 2014. Developing models and theory for blended learning research. In Blended learning: Research perspectives. Vol. 2. Edited by A. G. Picciano, C. D. Dziuban, and C. R. Graham, 13–33. New York: Routledge.

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  This chapter makes a case for the importance of theory. There is limited evidence of theory development in the research. Three types of theory are described, and evidence is provided that much of the research focuses on surface/physical features of blended designs rather than the pedagogical features of blended designs.

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• Shea, P. 2007. Towards a conceptual framework for learning in blended environments. In Blended learning: Research perspectives. Edited by A. G. Picciano and C. D. Dziuban, 19–35. Needham, MA: Sloan Consortium.

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  This chapter discusses how blended designs might go beyond the goal of access to the goal of quality. The chapter addresses how blended environments can be learner-centered, knowledge-centered, assessment-centered, and community-centered. Additionally, the author identifies the integration of online and traditional pedagogies as a commonly missing element in the research.

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• Shea, P., and T. Bidjerano. 2010. Learning presence: Towards a theory of self-efficacy, self-regulation, and the development of a communities of inquiry in online and blended learning environments. Computers & Education 55.4: 1721–1731.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2010.07.017Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article builds on the Community of Inquiry framework and explores the student role in online and blended learning. It looks at a construct called “learning presence” involving elements of self-efficacy and self-regulation. The study draws on data representing over three thousand students from forty-two different institutions of higher education.

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Models

There is a wide range of published models for implementing blended learning. This section contains many of the most prominent in the literature. There are similarities and significant differences between K-12 blended models (Staker, et al. 2011; Staker and Horn 2012) and the models used primarily for adults in higher education (Twigg 2003, Picciano 2009) and corporate training contexts (Wenger and Ferguson 2006; Rossett and Frazee 2006). For example, because K-12 students are minors and teachers fill a supervisory role as well as a teaching role, many of the K-12 blended models involve online learning components that take place within a brick and mortar school.

• Hoxie, A. -M., J. Stillman, and K. Chesal. 2014. Blended learning in New York City: The iLearnNYC Program. In Blended learning: Research perspectives. Vol. 2. Edited by A. G. Picciano, C. D. Dziuban, and C. R. Graham, 304–324. New York: Routledge.

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  This chapter presents research comparing flex and rotation models in over one hundred schools in the New York City K-12 school system. Researchers compared rotation and flex models for teacher perceptions of student engagement with content, motivation for low-performing students, opportunities to self-regulate learning, and personalized learning experiences.

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• Norberg, A., C. D. Dziuban, and P. D. Moskal. 2011. A time-based blended learning model. On the Horizon 19.3: 207–216.

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  This article presents a model of blended learning that is organized around time as the primary organizing construct, rather than place. Blends are conceptualized in terms of combining synchronous and asynchronous activities. Five major components are used to envision the blending possibilities: migration, support, location, learner empowerment, and flow.

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• Picciano, A. G. 2009. Blending with purpose: The mutimodal model. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 13.1: 7–18.

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  This article presents a model of blended learning spanning two dimensions: (1) conventional face-to-face classroom to fully online, and (2) minimal technology/media to technology/media-infused. Six pedagogical activities that can occur across the modalities are presented. Instructors should understand objectives and apply the technologies in the modalities that most benefit students.

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• Rossett, A., and R. V. Frazee. 2006. Blended learning opportunities. New York: American Management Association.

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  This report shares models of blended learning used in a corporate training context. Blended models include: anchor blend, bookend blend, and field blend.

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• Staker, H., E. Chan, M. Clayton, A. Hernandez, M. B. Horn, and K. Mackey. 2011. The rise of K–12 blended learning: Profiles of emerging models. San Francisco: Innosight Institute.

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  This paper contains the profile descriptions for forty institutions used for the initial six blended learning models developed by the authors that are later consolidated and simplified. Each profile includes descriptive data and prose under the following section headings: “History and Context,” “Blended Model,” “Results,” and “On the Horizon.”

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• Staker, H., and M. B. Horn. 2012. Classifying K–12 blended learning. San Francisco: Innosight Institute.

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  This white paper reclassifies models of K-12 blended learning from Staker, et al. 2011 into four categories: (1) rotation, (2) flex, (3) self-blend, and (4) enriched virtual. The rotation model is further classified into four sub-models: (1a) station rotation, (1b) class-rotation, (1c) flipped-classroom, and (1d) individual rotation.

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• Twigg, C. A. 2003. Improving learning and reducing costs: New models for online learning. EDUCAUSE Review 38.5: 28–38.

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  This article is the first articulation of blended learning models in a higher education context. The five models include the supplemental model, the replacement model, the emporium model, the fully online model, and the buffet model. The models are intended to simultaneously achieve improved outcomes and cost reductions.

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• Wenger, M. S., and C. Ferguson. 2006. A learning ecology model for blended learning from Sun Microsystems. In The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. Edited by C. J. Bonk and C. R. Graham, 76–91. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

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  This chapter elaborates the Learning Ecology Framework used by Sun Microsystems. A matrix along the dimensions of content delivery focus to experience and practice focus and learner self-navigation to guided navigation is presented. Learning elements or pedagogical strategies for each of the resulting four quadrants are presented.

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Meta-Analyses

Meta-analyses combine the outcomes of many smaller experimental studies in an attempt to identify conclusions with greater statistical power. Meta-analyses report effect size as a measure of the strength of a phenomenon. This section presents several meta-analyses that have been conducted related to blended learning. In general, the meta-analyses show improved outcomes for the blended learning condition over other conditions (typically, traditional face-to-face and fully online). However, as Bernard, et al. 2014; Means, et al. 2010; and Means, et al. 2013 point out, we still need research that helps us to understand what elements of the effective blends are causing the improved outcomes. Sitzmann, et al. 2006 provides additional evidence for the effectiveness of using web-based instruction as a supplement to classroom instruction, and Cook, et al. 2010 provides negative findings to blended outcomes in the health sciences.

• Bernard, R. M., E. Borokhovski, R. F. Schmid, R. M. Tamim, and P. C. Abrami. 2014. A meta-analysis of blended learning and technology use in higher education: From the general to the applied. Journal of Computing in Higher Education 26.1: 87–122.

  DOI: 10.1007/s12528-013-9077-3Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article reports results comparing classroom instruction and blended learning conditions. Student-student, student-teacher, and student-content interactions are explored. Finally, the article proposes greater theoretical development of the BL condition, looking at design principles related to (1) self-regulation, (2) motivation, and (3) collaborative/cooperative learning.

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• Bernard, R. M., E. Borokhovski, and R. M. Tamim. 2014. Detecting bias in meta-analyses of distance education research?: Big pictures we can rely on. Distance Education 35.3: 271–293.

  DOI: 10.1080/01587919.2015.957433Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article looks at meta-analyses that compare conditions of online learning, distance education, and blended learning (BL) with classroom instruction. Authors determine that meta-analyses to date show a modest increase in outcomes for BL. The wide variation in effect sizes also indicate that all conditions have room for significant improvement.

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• Cook, D. A., A. J. Levinson, S. Garside, D. M. Dupras, P. J. Erwin, and V. M. Montori. 2010. Instructional design variations in Internet-based learning for health professions education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Academic Medicine?: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges 85.5: 909–922.

  DOI: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181d6c319Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This review looks at Internet-based learning for health professions. However, two of the many studies reviewed involved blended learning. In both cases, the Internet-only condition provided more desirable outcomes than the blended learning conditions.

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• Means, B., Y. Toyama, R. Murphy, and M. Baki. 2013. The effectiveness of online and blended learning: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Teachers College Record 115.3: 1–47.

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  The authors found that, on average, students in conditions that used online or blended learning outperformed students in the face-to-face condition. Conclusions did not identify what elements caused the improved outcomes, though blended conditions tended to involve more instructional time, instructional resources, and elements that encourage peer interaction among learners.

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• Means, B., Y. Toyama, R. Murphy, M. Bakia, and K. Jones. 2010. Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning. Washington, DC: US Department of Education.

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  This meta-analysis reported that blends of online and face-to-face instruction had stronger learning outcomes than did traditional face-to-face instruction alone. Means, et al. 2013 is the version of the study published in a peer-reviewed journal.

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• Sitzmann, T., K. Kraiger, D. Stewart, and R. Wisher. 2006. The comparative effectiveness of web-based and classroom instruction: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology 59.3: 623–664.

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  This meta-analysis reported on web-based instruction that was used to supplement classroom instruction (CI). It found this approach was more effective than CI alone, 13 percent more effective for teaching declarative knowledge, and 20 percent more effective for teaching procedural knowledge. At the same time, participants were 6 percent more satisfied with CI.

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Institutional Issues

This section identifies research in blended contexts related to three important institutional issues: (1) institutional change and adoption, (2) cost-effectiveness/return on investment, and (3) student access to learning opportunities. A special issue of The Internet and Higher Education is titled Blended Learning in Higher Education: Policy and Implementation Issues (Owston 2013, cited under Special Journal Issues); it contains many articles highlighted in this section.

Faculty Issues

This section identifies research in blended contexts related to three important faculty issues: (1) faculty adoption of blended learning, (2) satisfaction and workload, and (3) professional development.

Student Issues

This section identifies research in blended contexts related to four important student issues: (1) Learning Outcomes, (2) Student Engagement, (3) Sense of Community and Social Presence, and (4) Student Satisfaction.

Disciplinary Applications

This section of the bibliography contains a small list of studies that focus on blended learning in specific disciplinary areas other than education. The fields represented are medical/nursing (Sung, et al. 2008), business/economics (Singh 2006; Collis, et al. 2005; Brown and Liedholm 2002), and engineering (Bourne, et al. 2005).

• Bourne, J., D. Harris, and F. Mayadas. 2005. Online engineering education: Learning anywhere, anytime. Journal of Engineering Education 94:131–146.

  DOI: 10.1002/j.2168-9830.2005.tb00834.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article looks carefully at how blended and online learning could affect engineering education. The authors analyze how online learning can add value to the teaching of specific engineering competencies. Additionally, the paper addresses activities in an online context that affect quality, scale, and breadth.

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• Brown, B. W., and C. E. Liedholm. 2002. Can web courses replace the classroom in principles of microeconomics?? The American Economic Review 92.2: 444–448.

  DOI: 10.1257/000282802320191778Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The authors compared student performance in live, hybrid (blended), and virtual (fully online) courses in economics. They concluded that females were at a significant disadvantage in the live courses, and that students in the virtual sections had lower performance even though their ACT scores were significantly higher.

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• Collis, B., M. Bianco, A. Margaryan, and B. Waring. 2005. Putting blended learning to work: A case study from a multinational oil company. Education, Communication & Information 5.3: 233–250.

  DOI: 10.1080/14636310500350471Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article presents an early case study of Shell EP LLD using blended learning in the workplace, where web-based learning supported work-based activities through both formal and informal learning experiences.

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• Ruiz, J. G., M. J. Mintzer, and R. M. Leipzig. 2006. The impact of e-learning in medical education. Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges 81:207–212.

  DOI: 10.1097/00001888-200603000-00002Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This is an introduction to e-learning (including blended learning) for stakeholders in the medical field.

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• Singh, H. 2006. Blending learning and work: Real-time work flow learning. In The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. Edited by C. J. Bonk and C. R. Graham, 474–490. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

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  This chapter talks about how blended learning can serve as a solution to bridge the learning and transfer gaps inherent in e-learning courses that are unconnected to real-time work performance.

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• Sung, Y. H., I. G. Kwon, and E. Ryu. 2008. Blended learning on medication administration for new nurses: Integration of e-learning and face-to-face instruction in the classroom. Nurse Education Today 28.8: 943–952.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.nedt.2008.05.007Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This authors compared the outcomes of a traditional nursing course with one that involved e-learning elements. There were no significant differences on most of the output variables, but the blended condition led to greater knowledge of medications. Conclusions indicate that blended might prove a cost-effective approach for nursing education.

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Future Directions

The following manuscripts identify trends and future directions in blended learning. Three of the articles involve Bonk and Kim as authors; they have written on this topic over time, related to both higher education and workplace settings (Kim and Bonk 2006; Kim, et al. 2009; Bonk, et al. 2006). Payne 2011 addresses the future of blended learning in medical education.

• Bonk, C. J., K. -J. Kim, and T. Zeng. 2006. Future directions of blended learning in higher education and workplace learning settings. In The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. Edited by C. J. Bonk and C. R. Graham, 550–567. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

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  This chapter elaborates on ten global predictions regarding the future of blended learning. Additionally, the authors present predictions for the most widely used pedagogical techniques and emerging technologies for e-learning in both higher education and corporate workplace settings.

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• Kim, K. -J., and C. J. Bonk. 2006. The future of online teaching and learning in higher education: The survey says. EDUCAUSE Quarterly 4:22–30.

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  The study addresses changing roles of instructors and students, the use of technology-supported pedagogies, and emerging technologies. Questions are addressed regarding the skills needed for online teaching in the future, and predictions are made regarding pedagogies and measurement strategies that will be more common online in the future.

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• Kim, K. -J., C. J. Bonk, and Y. -T. Teng. 2009. The present state and future trends of blended learning in workplace learning settings across five countries. Asia Pacific Education Review 10.3: 299–308.

  DOI: 10.1007/s12564-009-9031-2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article presents data from 600+ training and human resource professionals regarding their perceptions of current and future directions of blended learning (BL). The authors report on perceptions of BL, skills taught with BL, strategic planning and future spending for BL, instructional strategies used with BL, and evaluation of BL.

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• Payne, G. W. 2011. The role of blended learning in 21st century medical education: Current trends and future directions. In Blended learning across disciplines: Models for implementation. Edited by A. Kitchenham, 132–146. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

  DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-479-0.ch008Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This chapter predicts that blended learning will experience significant growth within the medical education field because of its ability to provide access to flexible educational opportunities for those already working within the discipline.

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Books on Research

This section shares academic books that focus on research in the blended learning context. Most of the books listed focus on research in higher education contexts. Bonk and Graham 2006 is the most cited of the edited works. Picciano and colleagues, who have had over a decade of experience with blended learning in higher education, have two edited volumes of research represented: Picciano and Dziuban 2007 and Picciano, et al. 2014. Ferdig and Kennedy 2014 and Clark and Barbour 2015 represent the first wave of blended learning research in the K-12 context. Finally, Dziuban, et al. 2016 focuses on research methods used in blended learning research with case examples from the blended learning literature.

• Bonk, C. J., and C. R. Graham, eds. 2006. Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

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  This book covers K-12, higher education, corporate training, and military contexts, as well as chapters highlighting blends from a range of countries. The first section of the book provides an introduction to blended learning, six middle sections organize chapters thematically, and the last section of the book addresses future trends.

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• Clark, T., and M. Barbour, eds. 2015. Online, blended, and distance education in schools: Building successful programs. Sterling, VA: Stylus.

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  This book focuses on research in K-12 contexts. Chapters focus on issues such as evaluating quality online teaching, instructional design, infrastructure and tools, research in K-12 online and blended contexts, and equitable access. The nine case studies presented have a very international flavor.

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• Dziuban, C. D., A. G. Picciano, C. R. Graham, and P. D. Moskal. 2016. Conducting research in online and blended learning environments: New pedagogical frontiers. New York: Routledge.

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  This book focuses on research methods that are used in blended learning research. Methods are contextualized by research that has been done in blended learning environments. The book’s thirteen chapters address methods such as reviewing literature, meta-analyses, survey research, case study research qualitative methods, longitudinal research, and big data.

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• Ferdig, R. E., and K. Kennedy, eds. 2014. Handbook of research on K-12 online and blended learning. Pittsburgh, PA: ETC Press.

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  This handbook focuses exclusively on blended and online learning in K-12 environments. It contains twenty chapters organized into six thematic sections: a background and historical perspective, research on learning and learners, K-12 learning in context domains, research on teaching, research on the role of the other, and research on technological innovations.

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• Glazer, F. S., ed. 2012. Blended learning: Across the disciplines, across the academy. Sterling, VA: Stylus.

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  This edited book presents several cases of blended learning in widely different higher education disciplines. Case studies and personal faculty narratives are presented in chapters focusing on the design of blended courses in culinary arts, genetics, anthropology, literature, and music theory.

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• Picciano, A. G., and C. Dziuban, eds. 2007. Blended learning: Research perspectives. Needham, MA: Sloan Consortium.

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  This was one of the early books focusing on research in blended learning. Chapters introduce the concept of blended learning and a rationale for blending, as well as introducing a conceptual framework for blended learning and early empirical research.

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• Picciano, A. G., C. D. Dziuban, and C. R. Graham, eds. 2014. Blended learning: Research perspectives. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge.

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  The twenty-one chapters in this volume show an expansion and maturing of the research since the original edited volume (Picciano and Dziuban 2007). Chapters in the book are organized into six thematic sections: blended learning models and scale, evaluation, faculty issues, studying nontraditional learners, international perspectives, and blended learning in K-12 environments.

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Books on Practice

The books in this section represent books written to provide guidance and best practices for those learning to implement blended learning in various contexts. Bersin 2004 was written for the corporate training context. Garrison and Vaughan 2008; Macdonald 2008; Vaughan, et al. 2013; and Stein and Graham 2014 were written primarily with a higher education context in mind. Garrison and Vaughan 2008 is the most cited book on blended learning. Tucker 2012, Arney 2015, and Horn and Staker 2015 focus on the K-12 context, with Arney 2015 and Horn and Staker 2015 focusing more heavily on blended learning at the school level rather than the classroom level.

• Arney, L. 2015. Go blended!: A handbook for blending technology in schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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  This book provides advice and guidelines to K-12 school administrators. The author uses her experiences as director of innovative learning at Aspire Public Schools as examples throughout the book. She takes a practical, measured approach to helping the reader consider how to consider, plan, and launch a blended school.

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• Bates, A. W. 2015. Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Vancouver, BC: BCcampus Open Textbooks.

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  This open textbook, written by an author with a worldwide perspective, addresses many fundamental questions faced daily by instructors about blended learning. Questions addressed include how to choose between face-to-face, blended, or fully online course delivery; and what methods of teaching are most effective for blended and online classes.

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• Bersin, J. 2004. The blended learning book: Best practices, proven methodologies, and lessons learned. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

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  This book focuses on corporate training and makes a business case for blending. It includes practical steps such as selecting a model, media selection, creating content, and launching the program. Case examples from the corporate world are used throughout the book to illustrate the concepts.

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• Garrison, D. R., and N. D. Vaughan. 2008. Blended learning in higher education: Framework, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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  The authors describe the Community of Inquiry framework in the first chapters and present a case for how blended learning can help with implementation. Final chapters present scenarios, guidelines, strategies, and tools illustrating blended learning in practice. The book includes extensive appendices with artifacts that can be used in implementation.

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• Horn, M. B., and H. Staker. 2015. Blended: Using disruptive innovation to improve schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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  This book focuses on blended learning in the K-12 sector and is framed around the theory of disruptive innovation. It provides guidance at the institutional level for understanding, designing, and implementing a school-level approach to blended learning. Examples and video vignettes are provided as supporting materials for the models presented.

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• Macdonald, J. 2008. Blended learning and online tutoring: Planning learner support and activity design. 2d ed. Burlington, VT, and Aldershot, UK: Gower.

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  This book presents practical guidance for developing online tutoring as a part of a blended learning approach. Chapters include ideas for using asynchronous online tools, strategies for online discussion moderation, and supporting online student groups. Additionally, topics such as assessment, electronic resources, note-taking/writing assignments, and online communication are addressed.

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• Stein, J., and C. R. Graham. 2014. Essentials for blended learning: A standards-based guide. New York: Routledge.

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  This book is a practical guide to developing blended learning courses. It highlights examples of blending assessments and feedback, content-driven activities, and community-driven activities. Learner engagement is addressed using online learning to address limitations with traditional onsite experiences related to participation, pacing, personalization, place (authenticity), personal interaction, and preparation.

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• Tucker, C. R. 2012. Blended learning in grades 4–12: Leveraging the power of technology to create student-centered classrooms. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

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  This book begins with an overview of blended learning and practical reasons for teachers to adopt a blended approach. The bulk of the book shares detailed examples of lessons meeting curriculum standards in math, language arts, history and social studies, and science.

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• Vaughan, N. D., M. Cleveland-Innes, and R. D. Garrison. 2013. Teaching in blended learning environments: Creating and sustaining communities of inquiry. Edmonton, AB: Athabasca Univ. Press.

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  This book focuses specifically on teaching in blended contexts, focusing on the concept of teaching presence. Seven guiding principles are provided to guide practitioners in creating and sustaining purposeful communities of inquiry.

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Conferences

Most conferences that focus on online learning, e-learning, or information and communications technologies will also have presentations related to blended learning. The iNACOL Blended and Online Learning Symposium focuses on the K-12 level, while the OLC Innovate: Innovations in Blended and Online Learning Conference mostly focuses on higher education.

• iNACOL Blended and Online Learning Symposium.

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  This is an annual conference sponsored by the iNACOL organization. It focuses on blended and online learning in the K-12 sector. The conference emphasizes blended and online learning practice with a limited focus on research.

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• OLC Innovate: Innovations in Blended and Online Learning Conference.

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  This is an annual conference that was rebranded by the Online Learning Consortium in 2015. Originally it was the Sloan Consortium’s Annual Blended Learning Conference and Workshop. This conference focuses primarily on the higher education context and emphasizes both blended learning research and practice.

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Special Journal Issues

This section of the bibliography highlights several journals that have published special issues focusing on blended learning. Some special issues focus on specific aspects of blended learning, such as policy and implementation or institutions transitioning to blended learning (see Owston 2013 and Banerjee and Picciano 2011). The majority of special issues introduce blended learning in general teaching contexts (Swan 2009a, Swan 2009b, and Picciano 2015) or within a specific domain, such as K-12 teacher education (Kennedy, et al. 2014), engineering education (see Smyrnova-Trybulska, et al. 2014), and health sciences (see McDonald and Picciano 2014). Finally, the 2015 issue of the Blended Learning in Practice journal from the University of Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom is an example of a university publication highlighting institutional blended learning practice and research (Barefood and Bygate 2015).

• Banerjee, G., and A. Picciano, eds. 2011. Special issue: Transitioning to blended learning. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 15.1.

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  This special issue of the Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks (now Online Learning) focuses on addressing issues that institutions of higher education seeking to transition to blended learning would be interested in. Some issues include faculty development, student and faculty perceptions, and adoption.

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• Barefood, H., and D. Bygate, ed. 2015. Blended Learning in Practice.

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  This journal of the University of Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom has been published since 2009 and showcases innovative blended learning practice and research from the university.

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• Kennedy, K., J. Freidhoff, and K. Oliver, eds. 2014. Special issue: K-12 blended and online teaching and learning. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 22.1.

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  This special issue focuses on issues and research in the K-12 blended and online teaching context.

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• McDonald, P., and A. Picciano, eds. 2014. Special issue: Blended learning in the health sciences. Online Learning Consortium 18.4.

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  This special issue presents four articles related to the experiences of blended learning in the health sciences at George Washington University.

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• Owston, R., ed. 2013. Special issue: Blended learning in higher education: Policy and implementation issues. The Internet and Higher Education 18.

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  This special issue is in a top-tier journal, with several prominent blended learning researchers represented. It focuses on policy issues facilitating blended learning in higher education.

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• Picciano, A., ed. 2015. Special issue: Blended learning: A global perspective. Education Sciences 5.2.

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  This special issue introduces the concept of and research on blended learning to the journal audience.

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• Smyrnova-Trybulska, E., P. Kommers, and M. Simmerling, eds. 2014. Special issue: competencies and skills for teaching blended learning. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life-Long Learning 24.3–4.

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  This special issue introduces the concept of blended learning for those providing continuing education for engineers.

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• Swan, K., ed. 2009a. Special issue: Blended learning, Part I. Journal for the Research Center for Educational Technology 5.1.

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  This is the first of two special issues on blended learning in higher education (see Swan 2009b). This issue focuses on blending at the classroom level.

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• Swan, K., ed. 2009b. Special issue: Blended learning, Part II. Journal for the Research Center for Educational Technology 5.2.

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  This is the second of two special issues on blended learning in higher education(see Swan 2009a). This issue focuses on blending at the program level.

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Growth Trends

This section of the bibliography is intended to provide the reader with resources that document growth trends in the domain of blended and online learning. While much of the early growth research did not distinguish between online and blended learning, there have been more recent efforts to differentiate growth that is happening in fully online versus blended contexts; Picciano and Seaman 2007 and Picciano and Seaman 2009 were some of the first to attempt this. Several reports done by the Babson Survey Research Group in collaboration with the Online Learning Consortium (formerly the Sloan Consortium) focus on growth trends of online and blended learning in higher education. The reader can see the awareness of blended learning as a distinct category appear in report titles beginning about 2007. The Keeping Pace with K-12 Digital Learning reports of the Evergreen Education Group focus on growth trends in online and blended learning in the K-12 sector. The reader can see the inclusion of the term “blended learning” enter report titles in the years 2012–2013 and then move to the broader term of “digital learning” in 2014.

• Allen, I. E., J. Seaman, and R. Garrett. 2007. Blending in: The extent and promise of blended education in the United States. Needham, MA: Sloan Consortium.

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  This report done by the Babson Survey Research Group in conjunction with the Sloan Consortium (now the Online Learning Consortium) sought to document the extent to which blended learning, as distinct from fully online and traditional face-to-face learning, was penetrating higher education in the United States.

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• Babson Survey Research Group. Higher Education Reports: Chief Academic Officers at Degree-Granting Institutions.

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  This site contains regular reports on the state of online learning in the United States. The organization defines online learning as environments where 80 percent or more of the content is delivered online, and where there are typically no face-to-face meetings. In 2007 there was a report focusing on blended learning.

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• Digital Learning Now. Digital Learning Report Cards.

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  This site contains annual reports related to state policies on digital learning as they relate to K-12 public education. The reports are more a reflection of how open state policies are to digital learning options than the actual quality of online learning within the state.

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• Evergreen Education Group. Keeping Pace with K-12 Digital Learning.

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  This site contains annual report on the state of k-12 digital learning in the United States. In 2012 the report title changed to include “blended learning” followed by a change to the more general term “digital learning” in 2014. The reports contain significant examples of blended learning in K-12 contexts.

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• Picciano, A. G., and J. Seaman. 2007. K-12 online learning: A survey of U.S. school district administrators. Needham, MA: Sloan Consortium.

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  This report explores early trends in online and blended learning in K-12 schools. The survey research conducted involved 366 US school districts representing over 3600 schools and two million students. This is one of the first studies to distinguish between online and blended learning in K-12 contexts.

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• Picciano, A. G., and J. Seaman. 2009. K-12 online learning: A 2008 follow-up of the survey of U.S. school district administrators. Needham, MA: Sloan Consortium.

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  This follow-up report to Picciano and Seaman 2007 provides additional evidence of the growth of online and blended learning in the K-12 sector.

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