Education One-to-One Technology in the K-12 Classroom
by
Andrea H. Parrish
  • LAST MODIFIED: 24 September 2020
  • DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0255

Introduction

In Toward a New Learning Ecology: Teaching and Learning in 1:1 Environments (cited under General Overviews), one-to-one learning environments are described as classrooms in which every student has access to a personal computing device (such as a laptop or a tablet) and continuous access to the Internet. This model for student computing was first discussed in educational research beginning in the 1980s, most notably in the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) project, a research collaborative among public schools, universities, and research teams funded by Apple and outlined in The Evolution of Teachers’ Instructional Beliefs and Practices in High-Access-to-Technology Classroom: First-fourth Year Findings (cited under Origins of One-to-One Technology: Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow [ACOT]). The original premise, based on the work of computer scientist and mathematician Seymour Papert, is rooted in the idea that ubiquitous access to technology can create more dynamic learning environments. In recent years, the proliferation of mobile technology has caused a renewed interest in one-to-one computing, as the improved portability and functionality of technology tools coupled with advances in wireless Internet capability makes one-to-one computing attainable for many schools and districts. Despite the continued debate about the impact of technology on learning, the U.S. Department of Education elevated the concept of a one-to-one technology ratio from unique innovation to moral imperative in its document, Reimagining the Role of Technology in Education: 2017 National Education Technology Plan Update (cited under Resources). Even before this, the prevalence of one-to-one computing initiatives increased, both in the United States is discussed in The New Digital Learning Playbook: Understanding the Spectrum of Students’ Activities and Aspirations (cited under General Overviews) and around the world in Large-Scale 1:1 Computing Initiatives: An Open Access Database (cited under International Perspectives on One-to-One Technology). The growth of these initiatives has been accompanied by an increase in peer-reviewed research and evaluation reports that document the impact of one-to-one technology on teaching and learning. A topic that was once dominated by white papers and evaluation reports now boasts a growing body of peer-reviewed studies, research syntheses, and government reports. The references cited in this article provide a cross-section of these various forms of literature that depict the use of one-to-one technology in K-12 classrooms, including implementation resources for districts and key empirical findings.

General Overviews

This section provides a series of general overviews and reports outlining the proliferation of one-to-one technology in K-12 schools. In particular, these reports and peer-reviewed publications describe the prevalence of one-to-one technology initiatives and the presence of computing devices in schools, and they give contextual information as to how the technology impacts the daily work of educators and students. Abell Foundation 2008 provides a review of district-specific, one-to-one technology initiatives of various types in the United States, while the IESD 2 and Project Tomorrow 2014 reports provide information as to the state of mobile computing in schools, including one-to-one technology prevalence. Spires, et al. 2009 and Spires, et al. 2012 provide a conceptual framework of how a one-to-one technology ratio affects the daily work of teachers and impacts the learning of students. Finally, Weston and Bain 2010 gives a candid overview of the critiques associated with one-to-one computing along with their potential for leveraging educational reform in schools.

Origins of One-to-One Technology: Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT)

The first widespread study and adoption of one-to-one technology in the United States is regarded as the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) project, a collaborative effort among Apple Computer, public schools, and several research entities that spanned a ten-year period from 1985 to 1995. The purpose of the ACOT project was to ascertain effective models for widespread integration of computing devices in schools. The scope was divided into three phases: (1) the identification of design principles for 21st-century learning environments, (2) the application of these design principles to develop online resources for educators, and (3) the use of these resources to support curricular implementation. Findings collected from participating ACOT schools and classrooms were disseminated in a series of research reports, some of which have been included here. First, the brief report Dwyer 1995 summarizes the ACOT project, including its purpose, the distinct phases, and the implications of this work. Then several findings reports are cited that epitomize the types of information collected on teacher and student experiences. Dwyer, et al. 1990 documents the evolution of teachers’ perspectives in adopting technology in the classroom, and Sandholtz, et al. 1990 examines the classroom practices of teachers in ACOT’s one-to-one learning environments. Finally, Ringstaff, et al. 1991 focuses on students’ experiences in the ACOT classrooms and their role in the learning process.

Evaluation Reports

When schools, districts, or states make a significant investment in one-to-one technology, evaluations are often conducted to measure the technology’s impact on teaching and learning. While individual initiatives and the evaluations of them vary, it is not uncommon for school districts to hire independent evaluators to conduct these evaluations. In this section, a series of the key state-level and district-level evaluation reports are provided as samples, with several of these serving as examples of large-scale, one-to-one technology initiatives in the United States and abroad. For instance, McCarthy 2001 chronicles the findings of Maine’s one-to-one computing initiative, one of the earliest statewide initiatives of its kind, spurred by the teaching and philosophical perspectives of Seymour Papert, a leading computer scientist and mathematician who pioneered ideas of how use of computers in classrooms could revolutionize education. Other state reports include Bebell and Kay 2010, a report of one-to-one computing in Massachusetts schools; Chang 2016, which outlines findings from Missouri’s one-to-one computing initiative; Gulek and Demitras 2005, a report on California schools; and Lowther, et al. 2012, a report of the findings from Michigan’s Freedom to Learn one-to-one initiative. Margolin, et al. 2014 discusses efforts in the Los Angeles Unified School District to integrate student devices in conjunction with the Common Core, and Shapley, et al. 2009 summarizes the final findings related to a large-scale, one-to-one computing initiative in Texas. Clarke and Svanaes 2012 outlines similar one-to-one technology initiatives implemented in schools in the United Kingdom. Overall, it is not uncommon for evaluation reports to be developed and posted online but not submitted to peer-reviewed sources for publication. However, the reports included here represent a combination of online publications and some that have been published in scientific, peer-reviewed journals.

Resources

In the Office of Educational Technology’s national technology plan, the US Department of Education (USDE) outlines one-to-one computing initiatives as a moral imperative for establishing greater equity among students (US Department of Education 2014). Specifically, US Department of Education 2014, and US Department of Education 2017 call on schools to create a robust infrastructure through continuous Internet access and a computerized device provided to every student. This creates a sense of urgency for researchers, schools, and communities to work together to accept this challenge. Many resources are available to support states and local school districts in implementing one-to-one technology resources, such as Warschauer and Tate 2015, that are directed to school leaders. However, not all of the resources available online are based on research and should, therefore, be evaluated judiciously by school system administrations. The citations below include USDE’s reports, forecasting reports such as Johnson, et al. 2015, and related reports (i.e., Greaves, et al. 2012, Maylahn 2017) describe the proliferation of and trends in one-to-one technology initiatives in K-12 schools.

  • Bebell, D., and L. M. O’Dwyer. 2010. Educational outcomes and research from 1:1 computing settings. Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment 9.1: 4–59.

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    This is a brief introduction in the Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment’s issue devoted to one-to-one computing. It provides a synthesis of the impact of one-to-one technology on teacher and student technology use, student engagement, and achievement.

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  • Greaves, T. W., J. Hayes, L. Wilson, M. Gielniak, and E. L. Peterson. 2012. Revolutionizing education through technology: The Project RED roadmap for transformation. Eugene, OR: ISTE.

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    This report outlines the background and main findings of Project RED, a national survey that examined the use and impact of technology in schools across the United States. The report also provided context for the use of technology to impact educational change and reform and takes a deep dive into the implementation of one-to-one technology initiatives, including issues related to costs, school leadership, and the classroom environment.

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  • Johnson, L., S. Adams Becker, V. Estrada, and A. Freeman. 2015. NMC Horizon Report: 2015 K-12 edition. Austin, TX: New Media Consortium.

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    The Horizon Report is the flagship publication for emerging technology trends in schools. Drawing upon the knowledge of its diverse panel of experts, the report has been published more than fifty times and translated into more than fifty foreign languages. In this 2015 K-12 edition of the report, one-to-one technology computing initiatives are discussed as a trend impacting the role of teachers in the classroom.

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  • Maylahn, P. 2017. Consortium for School Networking annual 2018–2019 annual infrastructure survey report. Washington, DC: Consortium of School Networking.

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    This report, published by the Consortium for School Networking, presents the findings of an annual survey of school districts from across the United States. The results, collected from over 350 district representatives, outline K-12 trends in Internet connectivity and broadband access, students’ access to computing devices, and security issues related to the use of technology in schools.

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  • US Department of Education. 2014. Future ready schools: Building technology infrastructure for learning. Washington, DC: US Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology.

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    In this 2014 edition of the Office of Educational Technology’s national technology plan, the US Department of Education (USDE) discusses one-to-one technology as a moral imperative for establishing greater equity among students. In the document, the USDE affirms that the adoption of mobile technology and, specifically, a device for every student has transformed from a passing trend to an imperative for equity and justice in education.

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  • US Department of Education. 2017. Reimagining the role of technology in education: 2017 national education technology plan update. Washington, DC: US Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology.

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    In this 2017 update to the National Education Technology Plan, USDE calls on schools to both accelerate and scale their adoption of technology. They indicate the need for ubiquitous Internet connectivity and learning devices for every student as a national priority. The report outlines an action plan for schools and districts to create infrastructures that include continuous access to high-speed Internet and personal computing devices.

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  • Warschauer, M., and T. Tate. 2015. Going one-to-one, 2.0. Educational Leadership 72.8: 60–65.

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    This is a follow-up article to Warschauer’s original introduction to one-to-one technology initiatives that appeared in Educational Leadership ten years earlier. Building on the most recent advice from those in the field, Warschauer and Tate outline the most relevant factors for school district leaders to consider in implementing these initiatives, including how to select devices and how to best utilize them to leverage student learning.

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Research Syntheses

Peer-reviewed research on one-to-one computing has grown and so has the research syntheses of these individual studies. Penuel 2006 is one of the early reviews of literature on one-to-one computing. The author examined thirty one-to-one studies and they are categorized as either implementation or outcome-based studies. Penuel’s early review noted significant limitations in one-to-one technology research, such as study designs that lacked rigor. In response, Zucker 2004 also advocates for rigorous design that moves beyond implementation to outcome-based research, particularly questions related to changes in teacher practice. Since the influential review of Penuel 2006, syntheses have grown to include the one-to-one synthesis Fleischer 2012, which categorizes findings from studies by student- and teacher-related outcomes. Harper and Milman 2015 synthesizes forty-six one-to-one studies and organizes results on student achievement and changes in the learning environment. The authors of Islam and Gronlund 2016 conduct an international review of one-to-one research to determine the issues investigated in the literature, classifying over 200 one-to-one studies related by technology usage patterns, impact, and implementation. Most recently, Zheng, et al. 2016 is a meta-analysis of one-to-one literature that examines ten one-to-one studies measuring increases in achievement and sixty-five additional one-to-one publications that examine a series of other factors. These one-to-one literature syntheses indicate that a one-to-one technology ratio has an impact on classroom dynamics and often creates a pedagogical shift toward student-centered forms of instruction.

  • Andrews, K. 2006. One-to-one mobile computing: Literature review. Alberta Education 2–65.

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    In this report, Andrews defines one-to-one computing and outlines a series of one-to-one technology initiatives in the United States and Canada. While not a peer-reviewed source, the report provides a succinct set of implementation recommendations in a variety of areas, making this a useful guide for schools or districts considering one-to-one technology adoption.

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  • Fleischer, H. 2012. What is our current understanding of one-to-one computer projects: A systematic narrative research review. Educational Research Review 7.2: 107–122.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.edurev.2011.11.004Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Fleischer provides a theoretical perspective on the one-to-one literature and divides one-to-one studies into two main themes: student-related results and teacher-related results. After a review of these themes and the subthemes associated with them, the author outlines a series of specific recommendations for a more focused and coordinated research agenda in the area of one-to-one computing.

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  • Harper, B., and N. B. Milman. 2015. One-to-one technology in K-12 classrooms: A review of the literature from 2004 through 2014. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 48.2: 129–142.

    DOI: 10.1080/15391523.2016.1146564Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Harper and Milman review one-to-one technology studies and separate their findings into two areas: student achievement and changes to the learning environment. Within the area of impact to the learning environment, they discuss students’ experiences, differentiation, constructivism, cooperative learning, motivation and engagement, and the challenges associated with implementing one-to-one technology initiatives in schools.

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  • Islam, M. S., and A. Gronlund. 2016. An international literature review of 1:1 computing in schools. Journal of Educational Change 17.2: 191–222.

    DOI: 10.1007/s10833-016-9271-ySave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This international review of one-to-one technology in schools collects themes of one-to-one studies. Of the articles that measured one-to-one technology and its impact on teaching, main themes include constructivist practices, flexible teaching, and increased collaboration. Of the publications that examine positive effects on the classroom, the main findings include improved teacher-student interactions and changes in overall classroom dynamics.

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  • Penuel, W. R. 2006. Implementation and effects of one-to-one computing initiatives: A research synthesis. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 38.3: 329–348.

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    This seminal review categorizes the early one-to-one literature by outcome and implementation studies. Findings from outcome studies show that there are affordances of one-to-one technology, but many of the true outcomes are questioned by the author due to a lack of rigor in aspects of research design. Penuel recommends that all studies include core information on design and implementation of an initiative and a variety of outcome assessment measures.

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  • Zheng, B., M. Warschauer, C. Lin, and C. Chang. 2016. Learning in one-to-one laptop environments: A meta-analysis and research synthesis. Review of Educational Research 86.4: 1052–1084.

    DOI: 10.3102/0034654316628645Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This review is both a thematic literature review and a meta-analysis of outcome or student achievement studies. Major themes include increases in student-centered instruction, individualized learning and project-based learning in one-to-one classrooms. The authors also report modest effect sizes with regard to one-to-one technology studies, based on their independent calculations.

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  • Zucker, A. 2004. Developing a research agenda for ubiquitous computing in schools. Journal of Educational Computing Research 30.4: 371–386.

    DOI: 10.2190/BYR8-CGFC-WVHV-T0TLSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Zucker discusses three key areas in one-to-one literature: (1) critical features of one-top-one technology initiatives; (2) the interactions and intermediate outcomes most often measured as a part of these initiatives; and (3) ultimate student outcomes related to student achievement, equity, and economic competitiveness.

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Peer-Reviewed Research: Implementation Studies

The number of individual, peer-reviewed journal articles of one-to-one technology implementation in K-12 schools has grown. Overall, the majority of these studies outline the implementation of these initiatives and the outcomes associated with them. In the sections that follow, sample implementation studies are divided into three sections: those conducted in Elementary Schools, Middle Schools, and High Schools. While the individual themes and the emphasis of each study varies, themes associated with the group of elementary implementation studies are distinct from secondary examinations of one-to-one technology integration. The sections that follow outline each of those themes, including the specific areas for consideration at each of the various levels of K-12 education.

Elementary Schools

The literature on the use of one-to-one technology in schools has grown. However, as a whole, the literature on the use of one-to-one technology in elementary contexts is less abundant. Lewis 2012; Li and Pow 2011; Lu, et al. 2017; Milman, et al. 2014; Rosen and Beck-Hill 2012; and Russell, et al. 2004 represent a cross-section of the studies available. These studies focus on the intersection of one-to-one technology and developmentally appropriate practices for young learners, along with the effects on teaching and learning. They also highlight the essential ways that issues like screen time for young children and the integration of technology to support foundational learning skills need to exist within a balance of developmentally appropriate practice that is based on most recent research.

  • Lewis, D. H. 2012. Enhanced one-to-one technology integration through elementary teachers’ technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge. PhD diss., Univ. of West Florida.

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    This qualitative case study examines the technological, pedagogical, content knowledge (TPACK) and associated perceptions of nine elementary school teachers involved in a one-to-one technology initiative. Findings from this study indicate that instruction in these learning environments can be improved through providing model lessons to teachers.

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  • Li, S. C., and W. C. Pow. 2011. Affordance of deep infusion of one-to-one tablet PCs into and beyond classroom. International Journal of Instructional Media 38.4: 319–326.

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    Li and Pow examine information recorded by students in one-to-one learning environments to ascertain changes to pedagogy and enhancements to learning based on the perceptions of these elementary-aged students. Findings indicate that students believed the technology enhanced their motivation for learning, helped them to develop cognitive skills, and improved their learning strategies.

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  • Lu, Y., A. T. Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. Ding, and K. Glazewski. 2017. Experienced iPad-using early childhood teachers: Practices in the one-to-one iPad Classroom. Computers in the Schools 34.1–2: 9–23.

    DOI: 10.1080/07380569.2017.1287543Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this case study of early childhood educators, that authors examine the ways in which these teachers integrated one-to-one technology in the classroom and how these methods connected with developmentally appropriate practice. In this study, one-to-one technology served as a facilitator in implementing a variety of pedagogical strategies, including literacy and various forms of developmentally appropriate practice.

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  • Milman, N. B., A. Carlson-Bancroft, and A. V. Boogart. 2014. Examining differentiation and utilization of iPads across content areas in an independent, preK-4th grade elementary school. Computers in the Schools 31.1: 119–133.

    DOI: 10.1080/07380569.2014.931776Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this mixed method case study, the authors study the implementation of a one-to-one iPad initiative at an independent elementary school, particularly focusing on how the iPads were utilized in instruction across content areas. Findings from this article indicate that teachers used one-to-one technology as a means of differentiation in a variety of content areas.

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  • Rosen, Y., and D. Beck-Hill. 2012. Intertwining digital content and a one-to-one laptop environment in teaching and learning: Lesson from the time to know program. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 44.3: 225–241.

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    In this mixed-method study, Rosen and Beck-Hill use a variety of measures to assess factors related to a constructivist, one-to-one computing initiative among four elementary schools. Results showed increases in constructivist pedagogy, student achievement, differentiation, and attendance as well as a decrease in disciplinary actions among students.

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  • Russell, M., D. Bebell, and J. Higgins. 2004. Laptop learning: A comparison of teaching and learning in upper elementary classrooms equipped with shared carts of laptops and permanent 1:1 laptops. Journal of Educational Computing Research 30.4: 313–330.

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    In this study, the authors compare the instructional practices and learning activities of upper elementary school classrooms with a one-to-one, student-to-technology ratio to those with access to shared laptop carts. Results indicated that classrooms with a one-to-one technology ratio exhibited more frequent uses of technology throughout instruction, less instances of whole group instruction, and greater opportunities for writing using digital tools.

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Middle Schools

Overall, studies of the use of one-to-one technology in secondary schools are abundant, and it is not uncommon for school districts to begin their one-to-one technology initiatives in the middle level grades and then follow a gradual phase-in process to additional grades over time. Studies of middle schools cited here include Donovan, et al. 2010; Donovan, et al. 2007; Downes and Bishop 2015; Dunleavy, et al. 2007; Garthweit and Weller 2005; Lei and Zhao 2008; Maninger and Holden 2009; Oliver and Corn 2008; and Swallow 2015. Many of the middle school studies emphasize how one-to-one technology impacts the motivation and engagement of learners, a particular focus based on the developmental needs of learners at this age. Selected studies, such Downes and Bishop 2015, also discuss middle level education as a specific context and discuss the impact of one-to-one technology initiatives in this context.

  • Donovan, L., T. Green, and K. Hartley. 2010. An examination of one-to-one computing in the middle school: Does increased access bring about increase student engagement? Journal of Educational Computing Research 42.4: 423–441.

    DOI: 10.2190/EC.42.4.dSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The authors examine the impact of one-to-one technology on student engagement in a middle school by identifying configurations of laptop use in classrooms. To do so, they employed the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM) and innovation configuration mapping. Findings from this study showed that increased access to technology devices did not always create higher levels of student engagement.

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  • Donovan, L., K. Hartley, and N. Strudler. 2007. Teacher concerns during initial implementation of a one-to-one laptop initiative at the middle school level. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 39.3: 263–286.

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    In this study, the authors employ the CBAM model to assess teachers’ perceptions of one-to-one technology adoption in order to better understand how teachers’ concerns may affect their practice. Results indicated that teachers’ perspectives tended to fall into one of two main categories: (a) concerns related to personal impact, and (b) concerns related to how the technology would impact their students.

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  • Downes, J. M., and P. A. Bishop. 2015. The intersection between 1:1 laptop implementation and the characteristics of effective middle level schools. Research in Middle Level Education Online 38.7: 1–16.

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    Downes and Bishop examine the implementation of a one-to-one technology initiative within the context of what constitutes an effective middle school learning environment. The descriptive findings outline a series of characteristics impacting middle school implementation of one-to-one computing initiatives, organized into cultural and community characteristics; curriculum, instruction, and assessment characteristics; and leadership and organizational characteristics.

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  • Dunleavy, M., S. Dextert, and W. F. Heinecket. 2007. What added value does a 1:1 student to laptop ratio bring to technology-supported teaching and learning? Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 23.5: 440–452.

    DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00227.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The authors describe typical technology usage in two middle school one-to-one technology classrooms, with a particular emphasis on the value added to teaching and learning by the technology ratio. One-to-one technology was found to be of greatest value when paired with effective professional development for teachers, including training that focused on effective pedagogy, curricular resources, and classroom management skills.

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  • Garthweit, A., and H. G. Weller. 2005. A year in the life: Two seventh grade teachers implement one-to-one computing. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 37.4: 361–377.

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    In this case study of two middle school teachers involved in the first year of Maine’s one-to-one technology computing initiative, Garthweit and Weller outline how the laptops were used by teachers and what effect the technology had on their practice. The effects of one-to-one technology were found to be influenced by technical issues, policy, and the beliefs of teachers regarding the technology’s impact on teaching and learning.

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  • Lei, J., and Y. Zhao. 2008. One-to-one computing: What does it bring to schools? Journal of Educational Computing Research 39.2: 91–122.

    DOI: 10.2190/EC.39.2.aSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Lei and Zhao investigate how students used laptops in a one-to-one middle school and how this technology impacted both the school culture and student achievement. Laptops were shown to increase the technology proficiency skills of students but also created challenges related to discipline, overreliance on the technology, and the need for digital literacy.

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  • Maninger, R. M., and M. E. Holden. 2009. Put the textbooks away: Preparation and support for a middle school one-to-one laptop initiative. American Secondary Education 38.1: 5–33.

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    In this study, the authors chronicle both teacher and student uses of technology in a middle school that is implementing a one-to-one technology initiative. Findings chronicle the various ways in which the technology affected teacher practice and student learning, including increased collaboration and greater instances of responsiveness given teachable moments presented by the ubiquity of technology.

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  • Oliver, K., and J. O. Corn. 2008. Student-reported differences in technology use and skills after the implementation of one-to-one computing. Educational Media International 45.3: 215–229.

    DOI: 10.1080/09523980802284333Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this two-year, mixed-method study of a one-to-one technology initiative in a private middle school, Oliver and Corn focus on student technology use before and after implementation of the initiative. A discussion is also included of the ways the technology impacted teachers’ pedagogical practice. Students reported greater levels of satisfaction in learning, increased frequency in technology use, increased levels of communication and collaboration, and increased technology proficiency.

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  • Swallow, M. 2015. The year-two decline: Exploring the incremental experiences of a 1:1 technology initiative. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 47.2: 122–137.

    DOI: 10.1080/15391523.2015.999641Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this qualitative case study, Swallow documents the decline that occurs in a middle school’s second year of their one-to-one initiative, with emphasis on how teachers’ and students’ impressions of the goals for the initiative and how a variety of factors are responsible for implications of the intended program. Findings indicated that teachers experienced challenges in goal-setting and that challenges related to teacher buy-in and ineffective professional development can dampen the desired teaching and learning outcomes in a one-to-one technology initiative.

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High Schools

At the high school level, numerous studies focus on the implementation of one-to-one technology initiatives. A cross-section of studies cited include Broussard, et al. 2014; Chou, et al. 2012; Christman 2014; Holen, et al. 2017; Inserra and Short 2012; Keengwe, et al. 2012; Meyer 2007; and Peterson and Scharber 2017. Collectively, these studies chronicle the impact of both small- and large-scale, one-to-one technology initiatives in a variety of high school contexts across the United States. Some research, such as Inserra and Short 2012, identifies the pedagogical differences in specific content areas while others, such as Broussard, et al. 2014, examine the individual experiences of teachers.

  • Broussard, J., D. Hebert, B. Welch, and S. van Metre. 2014. Teaching today for tomorrow: A case study of one high school’s 1:1 computer adoption. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin 80.4: 37–45.

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    In this case study of a high school teacher in a one-to-one learning environment, the authors describes the changes that leaders and teachers made to the learning environments within the school. The study also documents how the one-to-one technology ratio was used in conjunction with pedagogical strategies and how this integration of technology affected levels of student engagement. Findings outline descriptions of how the one-to-one technology impacted teaching and learning, particularly pedagogical practice.

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  • Chou, C. C., L. Block, and R. Jesness. 2012. A case study of mobile learning pilot project in K-12 schools. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange 5.2: 11–26.

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    The authors provide a case study of four one-to-one high school classrooms. Through classroom observations, teacher focus groups, and student focus groups, findings outline advantages and challenges. Affordances of the technology included increased engagement, increased time for student projects, improved digital literacy, and improved digital citizenship. Findings also included descriptions of challenges related to professional development for teachers.

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  • Christman, L. M. 2014. Ubiquitous computing: Systematic transformation to 21st century teaching and learning. PhD diss., Drexel Univ.

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    This mixed-method study chronicles a large high school implementing a one-to-one technology initiative. Results examine the relationship between the technology initiative and 21st-century skills and how a series of factors influenced the planning decisions of teachers. Results showed significant gains in student and teacher technology use, increased 21st-century skills, greater confidence in technology use, heightened student engagement, and a shift from teacher-centered to more student-centered pedagogy.

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  • Holen, J. B., W. Hung, and B. Gourneau. 2017. Does one-to-one technology really work: An evaluation through the lens of activity theory. Computers in the Schools: Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and Applied Research 34. 1–2: 24–44.

    DOI: 10.1080/07380569.2017.1281698Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this evaluation study of a one-to-one technology initiative in a rural high school, the authors examine both the processes of one-to-one technology implementation and the outcomes of the initiative, using activity theory as a conceptual framework. Qualitative findings outline a shift in pedagogy toward more student-centered instruction, implications related to just-in-time learning, potential distractibility of the technology, and issues related to access.

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  • Inserra, A., and T. Short. 2012. An analysis of high school math, science, social studies, English, and foreign language teachers’ implementation of one-to-one computing and their pedagogical practices. Journal of Educational Technology Systems 41.2: 145–169.

    DOI: 10.2190/ET.41.2.dSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Inserra and Short investigate the ways in which high school teachers from different disciplines (English, math, science, and social studies) integrated one-to-one technology in their classrooms. Along with a useful discussion of various terms and definitions associated with one-to-one computing, the authors compare and contrast the pedagogical practices and one-to-one technology integration of high school teachers from various content areas.

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  • Keengwe, J., G. Schnellert, and C. Mills. 2012. Laptop initiative: Impact on instructional technology integration and student learning. Education and Information Technologies 17.2: 137–146.

    DOI: 10.1007/s10639-010-9150-8Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this study, the authors examine the impact of one-to-one technology on the educational achievement of students in a high school. Results showed one-to-one computing positively impacted student engagement and motivation and that the technology increased students’ use of digital tools both at home and at school. Faculty believed that the technology improved the learning experience of all students, regardless of ability.

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  • Meyer, R. C. 2007. A case study of one-to-one computing: The effects on teaching and learning. PhD diss., Univ. of Nebraska.

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    This comprehensive study by Meyer examines how one-to-one technology impacted teaching and student learning in high schools across three school districts. This examination focused on schools well into implementation of the initiatives with four or more years of involvement and the results of the study are taken from a cross-section of school contexts.

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  • Peterson, L., and C. Scharber. 2017. Lessons from a one-to-one laptop pilot. Computers in the Schools: Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and Applied Research 34.1–2: 60–72.

    DOI: 10.1080/07380569.2017.1296328Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Peterson and Scharber unpack the logistics of one-to-one implementation by outlining one school district’s efforts to design, develop, and implement a one-to-one computing initiative. In the paper, they share results of the district’s pilot program and provide recommendations for other school districts considering the implementation of similar initiatives.

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International Perspectives on One-to-One Technology

Access to a computing device can increase access to resources and provide a vehicle for equity. Early projects such as the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) initiative were once prolific and studies of these soon followed. For instance, Howard and Rennie 2013 examines Australian OLPC data, providing useful information about adoption and diffusion of the technology on such a large scale. These initiatives spawned other large-scale, one-to-one computing initiatives throughout the world as access was increasingly viewed as a means of providing resources, increased economic competitiveness, and quality improvement. Large-scale, one-to-one computing initiatives are now prevalent worldwide, as documented in Richardson, et al. 2013, which discusses an open- access database that categorizes these initiatives. Regional reports, like Severin and Capota 2011, outline one-to-one technology initiatives occurring throughout Latin America and the Caribbean, providing a glimpse into how different nations have utilized one-to-one technology. In other countries, the fidelity of large-scale initiatives has been evaluated. For example, Claro, et al. 2013 examines schools across Chile to determine how the technology impacted teachers’ pedagogy. The authors of Li and Pow 2011 use the daily logs of students in one primary school in northern Hong Kong to document the impact of the school’s newly adopted one-to-one technology on teaching and learning. Despite the fact that there were no major changes in pedagogy, results indicate enhancements between school and home connection, and students reported that the technology improved their motivation and helped them to develop their learning strategies and develop a better plan for learning (Li and Pow 2011). Similarly, Li 2010 examines the impact of one-to-one technology on the pedagogical practice of teachers in Hong Kong and the permeation of the technology across the school culture. Other studies compare and contrast the pedagogical practices of one-to-one teachers across other countries, including Looi and Wong 2014, a study of a mobile learning initiative in Singapore; Lindqvist 2015, a study of one-to-one teachers in Sweden; and Lindsay 2016, an examination of one-to-one teacher pedagogy in New Zealand schools. While the international literature shows a variety of cultural contexts, many shared themes among the discussions reveal one-to-one technology’s influence on teachers’ pedagogy.

  • Claro, M., M. Nussbaum, X. López, and A. Díaz. 2013. Introducing 1 to 1 in the classroom: A large-scale experience in Chile. Journal of Educational Technology & Society 16.3: 315–328.

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    The authors report on the outcomes of a one-to-one technology initiative than spanned several elementary grades of more than 1,500 schools in Chile. To examine pedagogical practice, they used classroom observation data to report on the impact of the technology on teachers’ pedagogical practice and how other related implementation factors associated with the initiative affected outcomes.

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  • Howard, S. K., and E. Rennie. 2013. Free for all: A case study examining impact factors of one-to-one device programs. Computers in the Schools 30.4: 359–377.

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    In this study, Howard and Rennie explore data from the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) program in Australia to determine its effect on teaching and learning as well as the potential for sustainability of the project. In the report they pose recommendations for a research agenda related to projects of this type, both in Australia and internationally.

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  • Li, S. C. 2010. Social capital, empowerment and educational change: A scenario of permeation of one-to-one technology in school. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 26.4: 284–295.

    DOI: 10.1111/j.1365–2729.2010.00350.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Li focuses on the permeation of technology in a school with a one-to-one student to computer ratio in a primary school in Hong Kong. Li examines how the one-to-one technology initiative facilitated social change by examining social forces at play within the school culture.

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  • Li, S. C., and W. C. Pow. 2011. Affordance of deep infusion of one-to-one tablet PCs into and beyond classroom. International Journal of Instructional Media 38.4: 319–326.

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    Using data collected from students in one-to-one technology classrooms in one primary school in Hong Kong, Li and Pow describe the impact of the school’s newly adopted one-to-one technology on teaching and learning. Descriptions of the home-school connections are discussed as well as student reports of the ways that technology improved their motivation and facilitated learning.

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  • Lindqvist, M. 2015. Gaining and sustaining TEL in a 1:1 laptop initiative: Possibilities and challenges for teachers and students. Computers in the Schools: Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and Applied Research 32.1: 35–62.

    DOI: 10.1080/07380569.2015.1004274Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This qualitative study outlines the use of one-to-one classroom technology in Sweden. Findings indicated that technology ratio offered greater options for teaching methods, assessment, and presentation formats as well as a series of student affordances. Lindqvist also notes relevant challenges listed to implementation of the model.

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  • Lindsay, L. 2016. Transformation of teacher practice in using mobile technology with one-to-one classes: M-learning pedagogical approaches. British Journal of Educational Technology 47.5: 883–892.

    DOI: 10.1111/bjet.12265Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this article, Lindsay utilizes survey data of teachers to provide a context for one-to-one technology integration in New Zealand schools. This study emphasizes how teachers integrated one-to-one mobile technology into their pedagogical practice.

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  • Looi, C.-K., and L.-H. Wong. 2014. Implementing mobile learning curricula in schools: A programme of research from innovation to scaling. Educational Technology & Society 17.2: 72–84.

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    In this study, Looi and Wong report on the expansion of an existing one-to-one technology initiative in a primary school in Singapore. Findings discuss the various phases of innovation involved in the program and components of mobile learning within the educational context of Singapore’s system.

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  • Richardson, J. W., S. McLeod, K. Flora, N. J. Sauers, S. Kannan, and M. Sincar. 2013. Large-scale 1:1 computing initiatives: An open access database. International Journal of Education and Development Using Information and Communication Technology 9.1: 4–18.

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    The authors outline their creation of an open-access database that categorizes large-scale, one-to-one computing initiatives throughout the world. The database availableonline lists countries participating in a one-to-one computing initiatives at local, regional, statewide, or nationwide levels.

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  • Severin, E., and C. Capota. 2011. One-to-one laptop programs in Latin America and the Caribbean: Panorama and perspectives. No. IDB-TN-273. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank.

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    In this comprehensive report, Severin and Capota discuss one-to-one computing in the context of Latin American and Caribbean countries. In this document, the authors provide economic, social, and educational perspectives of the one-to-one technology model through a series of specific examples before presenting a summary related to systemic integration and evaluation models.

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Professional Development and One-to-One Technology

The literature indicates that effectively designed professional development contributes substantially to improved pedagogical practice in one-to-one learning environments (Ackley 2017; Crichton, et al. 2012; Knops 2017). The literature provided here offers useful insights into the key themes associated with one-to-one technology and professional development for teachers. For instance, studies such as Klieger, et al. 2010 show that the attitudes of one-to-one teachers are critical in the effective delivery of instruction and school leaders who demonstrate responsiveness to the needs of teachers can help to influence teachers’ positive attitudes toward the use of technology in the classroom. Similarly, Knops 2017 finds that to be receptive to professional development offered as part of a one-to-one initiative, teachers need to feel that professional development is being provided based on their individualized needs. Crichton, et al. 2012 affirms that professional development is a critical component in the implementation of one-to-one technology initiatives in schools. Overall, one of the key problems faced by the field is the variance of training approaches for educators. In particular, the efficacy of teacher assessment and corresponding professional development in one-to-one technology initiatives varies greatly from system to system (Topper and Lancaster 2013). Oliver 2010 provides a portrayal of teacher readiness for one-to-one technology learning environments, arguing the need for particular sets of pedagogically oriented skills as aligned with current professional standards. Attempts have been made to identify the competencies that define teacher readiness for these learning environments. For instance, the authors of Parrish and Sadera 2020 conducted a national Delphi study to develop the One-to-One Technology Teaching Competencies, a set of thirty skills and dispositions organized in five categories: instructional planning, instructional delivery, assessment of learning, classroom management, and professionalism and leadership. These competencies serve as a professional development resource for schools and teacher preparation programs that wish to pursue one-to-one technology integration.

  • Ackley, S. 2017. A case study of best practices of implementing a one-to-one technology program. PhD diss., Lamar Univ.

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    This case study examines implementation of one-to-one technology initiatives in three rural schools in Texas and the best practices that contribute to success. Findings suggest that professional development is a critical factor in the success of these technology initiatives.

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  • Crichton, S., K. Pegler, and D. White. 2012. Personal devices in public settings: Lessons learned from an iPod touch/iPad project. Electronic Journal of e-Learning 10.1: 23–31.

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    The purpose of this study is to develop an understanding of infrastructure needed for device deployment in a large urban school district. Findings help to show that effectively designed teacher professional development can contribute significantly to improved pedagogical practice in one-to-one learning environments.

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  • Klieger, A., Y. Ben-Hur, and N. Bar-Yossef. 2010. Integrating laptop computers into classroom: Attitudes, needs, and professional development of science teachers; A case study. Journal of Science and Educational Technology 19.2: 187–198.

    DOI: 10.1007/s10956-009-9191-1Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The authors examine the professional development provided to middle school teachers in an international one-to-one technology initiative. Findings showed that perspectives of one-to-one teachers are critical in the effective delivery of instruction and school leaders who demonstrate responsiveness to the needs of teachers can help to influence teachers’ positive attitudes toward the use of technology in the classroom.

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  • Knops, M. 2017. Teachers’ perceptions of professional development for one-to-one technology integration in an elementary school setting. Concordia Univ.

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    Knop examines teachers’ impressions of professional development provided to them as part of a one-to-one technology initiative and how these efforts effected their efficacy as related to technology integration. Knops found connections between those who took greatest advantage of the professional development offered to them and greater levels of efficacy related to technology integration in the one-to-one classroom.

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  • Oliver, K. 2010. Evaluating teacher readiness for the implementation of one-to-one computing based on national educational technology standards. Journal of Literacy and Technology 11.3: 40–76.

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    Oliver discusses the new demands placed on teachers in the one-to-one computing environment and how these skills coincide with the ISTE standards for teachers. In the study, which identifies the readiness of teachers in seven high schools, Oliver outlines each of the standards and the implications of these to ubiquitous computing environments. Oliver’s study served as an ideal starting point for developing a draft list of skills that were formulated into survey items and disseminated to the experts in round one.

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  • Parrish, A. H., and W. A. Sadera. 2020. Teaching competencies for student-centered, one-to-one learning environments: A Delphi study. Journal of Educational Computing Research 57.8: 1910–1934.

    DOI: 10.1177/0735633118816651Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Parrish and Sadera utilize a nationwide panel of subject matter experts to develop an inventory of teaching competencies needed to facilitate student-centered instruction in one-to-one environments. The resulting inventory is a resource for examining teacher preparation programs and for developing professional development that supports school systems in successfully implementing student-centered, one-to-one technology initiatives.

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  • Topper, A., and S. Lancaster. 2013. Common challenges and experiences of school districts that are implementing one-to-one computing initiatives. Computers in the Schools: Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and Applied Research 30:346–358.

    DOI: 10.1080/07380569.2013.844640Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Topper and Lancaster study multiple one-to-one technology initiatives and themes within them related to leadership, budgeting, professional development, pedagogical practice, and evaluation. Overall, they found a dichotomy of approaches to professional development utilized by various school districts.

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One-to-One Technology to Facilitate Instructional Change

One-to-one technology integration has long been viewed as a strategy for educational reform, institutional equity, and pedagogical change. Within the one-to-one, peer-reviewed literature, growing amounts of research outline examples of schools and districts that have undertaken one-to-one technology initiatives with the intent of fostering pedagogical improvements in their schools. The literature included in this section provides a cross-section of several themes related to one-to-one technology as a vehicle for pedagogical change, particularly the opportunities for improving classroom pedagogy, facilitating change through instructional leadership, and using one-to-one technology as an agent for equity. The amount of literature on one-to-one technology and classroom pedagogy is far-reaching, and the studies referenced here provide several examples of relevant themes. In many schools and districts, one-to-one technology initiatives are coupled with goals of improving pedagogical practice, such as the large-scale initiative focused on student-centered instruction and technology integration discussed in the case study in Imbriale, et al. 2017 or Cavanagh, et al. 2011, which focuses on the use of this technology ratio to support change in teachers’ pedagogical practices. In other instances, specific pedagogical practices may be joined with one-to-one technology integration, such as the use of flexible classroom spaces explored in Byers, et al. 2018 or the integration of inquiry-based instruction and one-to-one technology evaluated in Henderson-Rosser and Sauers 2017. Leadership is another important aspect of one-to-one technology implementation, exemplified in Hineman, et al. 2015, a study on technology-literate leaders and Pautz and Sadera 2017, a phenomenological study of the experiences of school principals implementing a student-centered, one-to-one technology initiative. One-to-one technology may also be seen as a pathway for increasing equity among students, through either access to information or to affordances of the technology itself. For instance, Corn, et al. 2012, one of the few studies examining students with special needs and one-to-one technology, examines teachers’ perspectives to understand how the technology ratio provides opportunities for students with disabilities. Other studies, such as Gherardi 2017; Grimes and Warschauer 2008; and Warschauer, et al. 2014, investigate the potential of one-to-one technology initiatives to narrow the achievement gaps in low-income areas or in schools with ethnically diverse groups of students.

  • Byers, T., E. Hartnell-Young, and W. Imms. 2018. Empirical evaluation of different classroom spaces on students’ perceptions of the use and effectiveness of 1-to-1 technology. British Journal of Educational Technology 49.1: 153–164.

    DOI: 10.1111/bjet.12518Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The authors explore the various space configurations in secondary settings with digital technology and how these affected students’ perceptions of their learning experience. Findings include a discussion as to how use of the space, along with changes in teachers’ integration practices, ultimately impact teaching and learning.

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  • Cavanagh, C., K. Dawson, and A. Ritzhaupt. 2011. An evaluation of the conditions, processes, and consequences of laptop computing in K-12 classrooms. Journal of Educational Computing Research 45.3: 359–378.

    DOI: 10.2190/EC.45.3.fSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This large-scale study examines the impact of one-to-one computing across forty-seven schools in eleven school districts in Florida. The main findings are organized around the impact of one-to-one technology on teachers’ pedagogical practice and its effect on student achievement.

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  • Corn, J., J. T. Tagsold, and R. Argueta. 2012. Students with special needs and 1:1 computing: A teacher’s perspective. Journal of Research in Special Education Needs 12.4: 217–223.

    DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01251.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The authors investigate the benefits and challenges of one-to-one technology in eighteen high schools as it related to the instruction of students with disabilities. Findings outline the ways one-to-one technology offers affordance for communication, organization, student confidence, accessibility, assessment options, enhanced literacy, and 21st-century skills as well as increased opportunities for individualized learning.

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  • Gherardi, S. 2017. Digitized and decoupled? Teacher sensemaking around educational technology in a model 1:1 program. Mid-Western Educational Researcher 29.2: 166–194.

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    This case study analyzes the experiences of one-to-one classroom teachers within a predominantly low-income, primarily Latino school district. Findings examined the beliefs and practices of teachers and how teachers’ mindset impacted initiative implementation, policy, and administrator’s decision making.

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  • Grimes, D., and M. Warschauer. 2008. Learning with laptops: A multi-method case study. Journal of Educational Computing Research 38.3: 305–332.

    DOI: 10.2190/EC.38.3.dSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Grimes and Warschauer chronicle the experiences of three low socioeconomic, ethnically diverse schools in California that are implementing a one-to-one laptop initiative. Their findings discuss the ups and downs of initiative implementation within a context of educating diverse student populations.

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  • Henderson-Rosser, A., and N. J. Sauers. 2017. Analyzing the effects of one-to-one learning on inquiry-based instruction. Computers in the Schools: Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and Applied Research 34.1–2: 107–123.

    DOI: 10.1080/07380569.2017.1298955Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This case study examines a one-to-one iPad initiative and its specific impact on inquiry-based instruction in an all-girls school focused on science, engineering, and math (STEM).

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  • Hineman, J. M., T. T. Boury, and G. W. Semich. 2015. Technology-literate school leaders in a 1:1 iPad program and teachers’ technology self-efficacy. International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education 11.2: 68–73.

    DOI: 10.4018/ijicte.2015040106Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this action research case study, the authors examine how the leadership of technology-literature school leaders influenced teachers’ self-efficacy as part of a one-to-one iPad initiative. Findings focus on the intersection of technology-savvy school leaders and how this can support teacher efficacy and pedagogical practice when integrating one-to-one technology.

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  • Imbriale, R., N. Schiner, and D. Elmendorf. 2017. Students and teachers accessing tomorrow (STAT): Baltimore County Public School’s one-to-one digital conversion case in practice. Computers in the Schools: Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and Applied Research 34.1–2: 3–8.

    DOI: 10.1080/07380569.2017.1281705Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    This case study describes a one-to-one technology initiative focused on increasing student-centered learning approaches and 21st-century skills. Planning and preparation for the initiative included revising district goals and revisions to policy and conversions related to all facets of the system, and recommendations focus on how one-to-one technology can be used to facilitate pedagogical change.

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  • Pautz, S., and W. A. Sadera. 2017. Leadership practices in a one-to-one computing initiative: Principals’ experiences in a technology driven, second-order change. Computers in the Schools 34.1–2: 45–59.

    DOI: 10.1080/07380569.2017.1296314Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Pautz and Sadera examine the experiences of school principals who implemented a one-to-one technology initiative and digital-conversion process in a large school district. Findings discuss the experiences of these administrators within the context of their roles as change agents and technology leaders within their schools.

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  • Warschauer, M., B. Zheng, M. Niiya, S. Cotten, and G. Farkas. 2014. Balancing the one-to-one equation: Equity and access in three laptop programs. Equity and Excellence in Education 47.1: 46–62.

    DOI: 10.1080/10665684.2014.866871Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    In this comparative case study, the authors assess one-to-one technology initiatives in three states: Alabama, California, and Colorado. The point of their comparison is to explore the ways in which one-to-one technology provides opportunities to narrow the gaps that exist between high and low socioeconomic populations of students.

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