Community Genetics
- LAST REVIEWED: 27 March 2014
- LAST MODIFIED: 27 March 2014
- DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199830060-0069
- LAST REVIEWED: 27 March 2014
- LAST MODIFIED: 27 March 2014
- DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199830060-0069
Introduction
Community genetics is a relatively young empirical field that focuses upon the genetic relationships among species and how these interactions shape whole communities and ecosystem function. Species and individual genotypes continuously interact with other species and genotypes, as well as the environment, and the outcomes of these interactions are dictated, in part, by genes. These genetic interactions involve the direct expression of phenotypes that affect other species but do not require the reciprocity of coevolution among species. Much of this work, to date, has been undertaken with dominant plant species, due to their natural histories and complex interactions with other species, such as herbivores, symbionts, and pathogens that have both ecological and evolutionary consequences. There is much overlap in the study of community genetics, eco-evolutionary dynamics, and the geographic mosaic of coevolution, leading some authors to suggest that the term is unnecessary. However, since community genetics was first defined by Antonovics in 1992, it is clear that a term was necessary to describe genetically based interactions among species (i.e., the role of genotype or genetic variation in structuring associated communities and ecosystem processes). In contrast, eco-evo dynamics is the study of feedbacks among ecology and evolution and the geographic mosaic of coevolution is the study of species interactions across landscapes that can lead to “hot” and “cold” spots of coevolution. Therefore, while they differ in scale and scope, all three fields of study are similarly grounded in the theory of indirect genetic effects, whereby the genes of one individual or species impacts the fitness or performance of another individual or species. Empirical studies in community genetics across a range of habitat types and systems have demonstrated the roles of plant phenotype, genotype, genetic variation, genotypic variation, and phylogenetic variation in structuring plant-associated communities and ecosystem processes. Current empirical and theoretical research is focusing on understanding the importance of genetic scale, spatial scale, the role of environmental variation, genetic X genetic X environmental interactions, and genetic feedbacks among interacting species, as well as the application of community genetics approaches to applied questions. Research focused on the application of community genetics approaches may become especially important in the context of global change that is leading to novel genetic interactions among species, altering community composition and ecosystem function.
General Overviews
Since 1992, when the term community genetics was first defined, special features in Ecology in 2003 and Proceedings of the Royal Academy B in 2013 as well as multiple key reviews have been undertaken to organize, summarize, and synthesize community genetics studies and results (it should be noted that empirical studies are not keeping up with the reviews, leading to some redundancy across reviews). The special feature in Ecology in 2003 highlighted both “reductionist” and “holistic” approaches to the study of genetic interactions among species. These approaches were differentiated by either a classical population genetics approach tracing potentially rapid population changes in one population to another population (reductionist) or a “genes-to-ecosystem” approach (holistic), tracing heritable genetic variation in one species to affect associated communities and ecosystem processes. Eight additional papers highlighted the advantages, disadvantages, and opportunities afforded by taking a community genetics approach to understanding the ecology and evolution of interacting species. Expanded reviews of this approach with applications were undertaken in Whitham, et al. 2006 and from a genomics perspective in Whitham, et al. 2008. Johnson and Stinchcombe 2007 reviewed evidence of the importance of evolutionary biology to community ecology, while Hughes, et al. 2008 tackled a fundamental assumption of community genetics, namely, that genetic diversity within species is as important to ecological processes as among species variation. Bailey, et al. 2009 provided the first meta-analysis of the strength of plant genetic effects on individuals, communities, and ecosystems across plant systems. Recently, a Special Feature in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B summarized some of the current research on the topic by highlighting twelve research and review papers in a variety of systems and contexts linking community ecology and genetics.
Bailey, Joseph K., Jennifer A. Schweitzer, Julia Koricheva, et al. 2009. Community and ecosystem consequences of gene flow and genotypic diversity across systems and environments: A meta-analysis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 364:1607–1616.
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This review found that plant genetics had larger effects on aboveground processes than belowground, that few differences in effects occur between terrestrial vs. aquatic systems, and that genetic effects generally declined across levels of organization (with a few exceptions). This study represents the first quantitative review of community genetics concepts.
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Hughes, A. Randall, Brian D. Inouye, Marc T. J. Johnson, Nora Underwood, and Mark Velland. 2008. Ecological consequences of genetic diversity. Ecology Letters 11:609–623.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01179.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
A review highlighting the relative importance of within-species genetic diversity as a component of biodiversity. Important clarification of terminology within community genetics studies, highlighting the need for a broader diversity of taxa, study approaches and scope of genetic variation in ecological studies.
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Johnson, Marc T. J., and John R. Stinchcombe. 2007. An emerging synthesis between community ecology and evolutionary biology. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 22:250–257.
DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2007.01.014Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
A review highlighting examples of how linkages between community ecology and evolutionary biology can and do occur. The authors cite four key conditions that would support the linkage of these fields and they also highlighted that more work is required to determine when and how these interactions occur.
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Neuhauser, Claudia, David A. Andow, George E. Heimpel, Georgiana May, Ruth G. Shaw, and Stuart Wagenius. 2003. Community genetics: Expanding the synthesis of ecology and genetics. Ecology 84:545–558.
DOI: 10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0545:CGETSO]2.0.CO;2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Key highlighted paper in a special feature focusing on the application and importance of a community genetics approach. With an emphasis on applications, this paper uses four examples, with empirical and modeling data, to indicate the importance of both ecological and genetic viewpoints.
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Whitham, Thomas G., Joseph K. Bailey, Jennifer A. Schweitzer, et al. 2006. A framework for community and ecosystem genetics: From genes to ecosystems. Nature Reviews Genetics 7:510–523.
DOI: 10.1038/nrg1877Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
A key review expanding the examples and application of community and ecosystem genetics. The paper highlights both a “genes-to-ecosystem” perspective and a multidisciplinary approach to better understanding the extended consequences of species genetic interactions.
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Whitham, Thomas G., Stephen P. DiFazio, Jennifer A. Schweitzer, et al. 2008. Extending genomics to natural communities and ecosystems. Science 320:492–495.
DOI: 10.1126/science.1153918Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Perspectives paper highlighting the role and mechanisms of genomics, with the growing list of species that have had their genomes sequenced, in both community assembly and ecosystem processes in natural systems.
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Whitham, Thomas G., William P. Young, Gregory D. Martinsen, et al. 2003. Community and ecosystem genetics: A consequence of the extended phenotype. Ecology 84:559–573.
DOI: 10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0559:CAEGAC]2.0.CO;2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Another of the key highlighted papers in a special feature focusing on community genetics. This paper illustrates, with a single well-studied system (Populus spp.), that heritable genetic variation has extended consequences for associated communities and ecosystem processes.
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Journals
No specific journal is dedicated to the study of community genetics but much has been published in the top scientific journals as well as major ecological and evolutionary journals (some of which are open-access journals) including journals such as Ecology, Ecology Letters, Journal of Ecology, Nature Reviews Genetics, Oikos, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, PLOS ONE, Science.
Ecology. 1920–.
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Published by the Ecological Society of America as the flagship international journal of the field. Publishes articles on original research in basic and applied ecology.
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Ecology Letters. 1998–.
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The top-ranked international ecological journal dedicated to the rapid publishing of novel, hypothesis-driven research in ecology. Reviews and Syntheses are open access.
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Journal of Ecology. 1913–.
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The oldest ecological journal, published by the British Ecological Society (since 1913). Publishes research on all aspects of plant ecology.
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Nature Reviews Genetics. 2000–.
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Publishes reviews of the highest quality, authority, and accessibility, enhanced with glossaries, references, and online links to databases, movies, and animations; authors are commissioned.
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Oikos. 1949–.
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Published by the Nordic Ecological Society; publishing original research on all aspects of ecology.
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 1887–.
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Publishes theme issues devoted to specific areas of the biological sciences, aiming to define a research frontier that is advancing rapidly. All papers from 2003 onward are open access one year after publication.
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PLOS ONE. 2006–.
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Publishes original research from all disciplines of science and medicine. Open access.
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1914–.
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Publishes original research in the biological, physical, and social sciences (since 1914).
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Science. 1880–.
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Published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science since 1880 (founded by investment from Thomas Edison). Publishes scientific news, commentary, and original research.
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Defining Community Genetics
Grounded in concepts conceived in empirical and theoretical models of community evolution, whereby groups of species (or genotypes) interact to influence each other’s ecology or evolution, the term community genetics in community ecology arose from a discussion between two distinguished scientists, J. Antonovics and J. Collins, as described in Antonovics 1992 and Collins 2003. The term is used to describe genetic interactions that occur among populations within communities that may or may not require coevolution (e.g., genetic variation in plant resistance and its implications for herbivore communities). It can be thought of as the study of the genetics of species interactions and their ecological and evolutionary consequences. Johnson and Stinchcombe 2007 and Rowntree, et al. 2013 provide good definitions of the term and its origins.
Antonovics, Janis. 1992. Toward community genetics. In Plant resistance to herbivores and pathogens: Ecology, evolution and genetics. Edited by Robert S. Fritz and Ellen L. Simms, 426–449. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226924854.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Antonovics’s chapter suggests that species interactions are relentlessly occurring to influence the ecology and evolution of interacting species, whether or not reciprocal coevolution occurs. He describes, in simple language for a science audience, two approaches, one “reductionist” and one “holistic” (see General Overviews and History).
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Collins, James P. 2003. What can we learn from community genetics? Ecology 84:574–577.
DOI: 10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0574:WCWLFC]2.0.CO;2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Perspectives piece in a special feature on community genetics, highlighting the origin of the term and uses in community ecology.
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Johnson, Marc T. J., and John R. Stinchcombe. 2007. An emerging synthesis between community ecology and evolutionary biology. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 22:250–257.
DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2007.01.014Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
A review highlighting examples of how linkages between community ecology and evolutionary biology can and do occur.
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Rowntree, Jennifer K., David M. Shuker, and Richard R. Preziosi. 2013. Forward from the crossroads of ecology and evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 366:1322–1328.
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0357Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Introductory paper from a themed special feature in which the authors outline the development of community genetics and the specific papers in the feature. Good introductory paper for graduate students.
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History
As mentioned in General Overviews, the special feature in Ecology in 2003 highlighted the two perspectives in community genetics as outlined by Antonovics in 1992. Both “reductionist” and “holistic” approaches were highlighted, differentiated by either a classical population genetics approach tracing potentially rapid changes in one population to another population or a “genes-to-ecosystem” approach tracing heritable genetic variation in one species to affect associated communities and ecosystem processes, respectively. Most empirical studies have taken the holistic viewpoint and commonly show that plant genetic variation influences plant-associated communities or ecosystem processes in natural systems. Early work focused on the effects of individual genotypes and the genetic variation in hybridizing systems to structure associated communities. For example, Maddox and Root 1987 showed the importance of intraspecific genetic variation to herbivory, while Fritz and Price 1988 demonstrated the importance of plant genotype to arthropod communities. Whitham, et al. 1999; Dungey, et al. 2000; and Wimp, et al. 2004 all demonstrate, observationally and experimentally, a genetic basis to arthropod communities utilizing genetic variation across hybridizing systems. Modern work focuses on biodiversity issues in general as well as applications to broader global change issues (see Applications) as well as determining the magnitude and circumstances of when species genetic interactions are important to species ecology and evolution as in Wymore, et al. 2010 and Hersch-Green, et al. 2013.
Antonovics, Janis. 1992. Toward community genetics. In Plant resistance to herbivores and pathogens: Ecology, evolution and genetics. Edited by Robert S. Fritz and Ellen L. Simms, 426–449. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226924854.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
First paper to define “community genetics” as the genetic interactions among species that do not require reciprocal coevolution.
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Dungey, Heidi S., Brad M. Potts, Thomas G. Whitham, and H.-F. Li. 2000. Plant genetics affects arthropod richness and composition: Evidence from a synthetic eucalypt hybrid population. Evolution 54:1938–1946.
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One of the first examples in which it was experimentally shown (with synthetic hybrid crosses) that there is a genetic component to community structure.
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Fritz, Robert S., and Peter W. Price. 1988. Genetic variation among plants and insect community structure: Willows and sawflies. Ecology 69:845–856.
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An early paper to illustrate heritable variation in insect communities associated with specific plant genotypes across environments.
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Hersch-Green, Erika I., Nash E. Turley, and Marc T. J. Johnson. 2013. Community genetics: What have we accomplished and where should we be going? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 366:1453–1460.
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0331Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Review that highlights three research foci (and suggested experimental approaches) with the goal of better predicting when and how intraspecific genetic variation and microevolution are important to community ecology and ecosystem properties. Appropriate for undergraduate students.
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Maddox, G. David, and Richard B. Root. 1987. Resistance to 16 diverse species of herbivorous insects within a population of goldenrod, Solidago altissima: Genetic variation and heritability. Oecologia 72:8–14.
DOI: 10.1007/BF00385037Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Early empirical paper illustrating the role of intraspecific plant variation on the susceptibility of associated community members, specifically herbivorous insects.
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Whitham, Thomas G., Gregory D. Martinsen, Kevin D. Floate, Heidi S. Dungey, Brad M. Potts, and Paul Keim. 1999. Plant hybrid zones affect biodiversity: Tools for a genetic-based understanding of community structure. Ecology 80:416–428.
DOI: 10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[0416:PHZABT]2.0.CO;2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Review highlighting the importance of plant hybrid zones as model systems to understand the community consequences of genetic variation.
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Wimp, Gina M., William P. Young, Scott A. Woolbright, Gregory D. Martensen, Paul Keim, and Thomas G. Whitham. 2004. Conserving plant genetic diversity for dependent animal communities. Ecology Letters 7:776–780.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00635.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study in natural stands encompassing a tree hybrid zone in which it was shown that tree genetic diversity was correlated with arthropod diversity.
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Wymore, Adam S., Annika T. H. Keeley, Kasey M. Yturralde, Melanie L. Schroer, Catherine R. Propper, and Thomas G. Whitham. 2010. Genes to ecosystems: Exploring the frontiers of ecology with one of the smallest biological units. New Phytologist 191:19–36.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03730.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Tansley Review highlighting the application of a community genetics approach to invasive species, climate change, and pollution research. Appropriate for undergraduate students.
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Ecosystem Ecology
Concepts in community genetics also apply to ecosystem ecology, whereby genetic interactions among species can influence community composition but also ecosystem processes. For example, plants influence soil community composition and ecosystem processes in both agricultural and natural systems, and most of this work, until recently, has been focused at the level of plant functional group or species. Variation in the quantity and quality of plant inputs to the soil (both above- and belowground) influences substrate availability for the soil community, including mutualists, root herbivores, pathogens, and decomposers and their activities, as well as soil food web interactions. Within-species variance has been shown to impact ecosystem processes from net primary productivity to litter decomposition to total pools and fluxes of soil nutrients, often reflecting concomitant changes in soil communities. As with community processes, ecosystem processes related to genetic variation interact with environmental variation and show a continuum of plant-soil linkages. As described in Matthews, et al. 2011, understanding the ecological and evolutionary potential of genetic variation to ecosystem processes is helping to link the fields of evolutionary biology and ecosystem ecology. For example, Crutsinger, et al. 2006 and Lojewski, et al. 2009 (in plant systems) and Harmon, et al. 2009 (in an animal system) have found the importance of genotypic diversity, genetic variation, and genetic divergence, respectively, to total plant biomass accumulation or productivity. Schweitzer, et al. 2008 found genetic variation in microbial community composition in soils beneath individual genotypes, while Madritch and Lindroth 2011 experimentally demonstrated that both microbial community composition and extracellular enzyme activity are locally adapted to individual genotypes. Madritch and Hunter 2002 and Schweitzer, et al. 2004 showed some of the first empirical work demonstrating that differences in plant traits and soil communities can influence a range of soil nutrient processes. Much work is yet to be done to understand the role of genetic interactions among species (e.g., plants and soil biota) on ecosystem processes such as net primary production or nutrient cycling and on the question of whether these genetic interactions can feed back to impact evolutionary processes of the interacting species.
Crutsinger, Gregory M., Michael D. Collins, James A. Fordyce, Zachariah Gombert, Chris C. Nice, and Nathan J. Sanders. 2006. Plant genotypic diversity predicts community structure and governs an ecosystem process. Science 313:966–968.
DOI: 10.1126/science.1128326Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Early experimental study indicating the non-additive role of genotypic diversity on total plant production.
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Harmon, Luke J., Blake Matthews, Simone Des Roches, Jonathon M. Chase, Jonathon B. Shurin, and Dolph Schluter. 2009. Evolutionary diversification in stickleback affects ecosystem functioning. Nature 458:1167–1170.
DOI: 10.1038/nature07974Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Experimental study demonstrating the ecosystem consequences of evolutionary diversification in fish. Diversification leads to changes in total primary production, trophic interactions, and dissolved organic nutrients.
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Lojewski, Nathan R., Dylan G. Fischer, Joseph K. Bailey, Jennifer A. Schweitzer, Thomas G. Whitham, and Stephen C. Hart. 2009. Genetics of aboveground productivity in two riparian tree species and their hybrids. Tree Physiology 29:1133–1142.
DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpp046Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study demonstrating the importance of genetic variation and genotype identity on total net primary production, in the field and experimentally.
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Madritch, Michael D., and Mark D. Hunter. 2002. Phenotypic diversity influences ecosystem functioning in an oak sandhills community. Ecology 83:2084–2090.
DOI: 10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[2084:PDIEFI]2.0.CO;2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Early empirical study demonstrating that leaf litter from individual genotypes can influence rates of nutrient release and soil nutrient availability. Great introduction to topic for undergraduate and graduate students.
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Madritch, Michael D., and R. L. Lindroth. 2011. Soil microbial communities adapt to genetic variation in leaf litter inputs. Oikos 120:1696–1704.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19195.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study demonstrating local adaptation of microbial communities to leaf litter genotype (traits). Elegant manipulative study in which litter from tree genotypes are exchanged and placed beneath other genotypes, resulting in microbial community conformation to the new litter environment.
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Matthews, Blake, Anita Narwani, Stephen Hausch, et al. 2011. Toward an integration of evolutionary biology and ecosystem science. Ecology Letters 14:690–701.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01627.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Review highlighting the importance and linkages between ecosystem science and evolutionary biology. Good introductory coverage of the topic for graduate students.
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Schweitzer, Jennifer A., Joseph K. Bailey, Dylan G. Fischer, et al. 2008. Soil microorganism-plant interactions: Heritable relationship between plant genotype and associated microorganisms. Ecology 89:773–781.
DOI: 10.1890/07-0337.1Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study showing the importance of genotype identity on soil microbial community composition.
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Schweitzer, Jennifer A., Joseph K. Bailey, Brian J. Rehill, et al. 2004. Genetically based trait in a dominant tree affects ecosystem processes. Ecology Letters 7:127–134.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2003.00562.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Early empirical study examining the linkages of genetic-based plant chemical traits to patterns of leaf litter decomposition and soil nutrient processes.
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Genetic X Environment Interactions
Recent theoretical works in the fields of community genetics, by Shuster, et al. 2006, and coevolution, by Thompson 2005, provide independent but convergent evidence that community and ecosystem phenotypes represent complex traits related to the fitness consequences of interspecific indirect genetic interactions among all interacting species. Complex phenotypes—a phenotype influenced by many gene loci, and likely by multiple organisms—are strongly influenced by environmental variability resulting in genetic-by-environment (G X E) interactions. When G X E interactions have been examined in community genetic studies, they indicate that abiotic factors such as site/spatial variation differences and nutrient addition, as well as biotic factors such as neighbor interactions, herbivory, and genetic X genetic X environment interactions, can all influence the community- and ecosystem-level impacts of plant intraspecific genetic variation to varying degrees (weakly to strongly). For example, Johnson and Agrawal 2005 and Pregitzer, et al. 2013 have demonstrated the importance of genetic and spatial variation or site to community composition and ecosystem processes, and Abdala-Roberts and Mooney 2013 have shown that nutrient additions and plant genotype together influence tri-trophic interactions (genotype effects are stronger than fertilization). Biotic interactions such as interactions among neighboring genotypes have been shown by Genung, et al. 2012 to influence associated communities, while Madritch, et al. 2007 and Tétard-Jones, et al. 2007 have shown that plant genotype and herbivory as well as genetic X genetic X environment interactions can influence soil nutrient processes and the performance of interacting species, respectively. G X E interactions are fundamental to better understanding the contextual importance of phenotypic variation and biodiversity (at all levels) to the ecology and evolution of species.
Abdala-Roberts, Luis, and Kailen A. Mooney. 2013. Environmental and plant genetic effects on tri-trophic interactions. Oikos 122:1157–1166.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2012.00159.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study examining the combined role of plant genetic family and soil fertility on trophic interactions among plants, seed predators, and parasitoids. Plant genetic effects on trophic interactions were stronger than fertilization.
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Genung, Mark A., Joseph K. Bailey, and Jennifer A. Schweitzer. 2012. Welcome to the neighborhood: Interspecific genotype by genotype interactions in Solidago influence above- and belowground biomass and associated communities. Ecology Letters 15:65–73.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01710.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study of interspecific genotype X genotype interactions indicating that indirect genetic effects influence both the community composition of associated arthropod species and ecosystem processes such as above- and belowground biomass accumulation.
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Johnson, Marc T. J., and Anurag A. Agrawal. 2005. Plant genotype and the environment interact to shape a diverse arthropod community on evening primrose (Oenothera biennis). Ecology 86:874–875.
DOI: 10.1890/04-1068Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study demonstrating the relative role of plant genotype and environment (habitats across spatial scale). Plant genotype was more important for structuring the associated arthropod community than environment but explained less variation than habitat type.
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Madritch, Michael D., Jack R. Donaldson, and Richard L. Lindroth. 2007. Canopy herbivory mediates the influence of plant genotype on soil processes through frass deposition. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 39:1192–1201.
DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.12.027Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study examining the interaction of herbivory with genetic variation. Intraspecific variation influences not only the plant chemistry but also the chemistry of herbivore frass; further interactions with nutrient availability suggest that canopy herbivores can mediate the influence of intraspecific variation.
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Pregitzer, Clara C., Joseph K. Bailey, and Jennifer A. Schweitzer. 2013. Genetic by environment interactions affect plant-soil linkages. Ecology and Evolution 3:2322–2333.
DOI: 10.1002/ece3.618Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study examining the relative role of plant genotype to influence soil processes across environments. Plasticity in tree growth and litter chemistry are related to variation in soil nutrient pools and processes reflecting tight plant-soil linkages.
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Shuster, Stephen M., Eric V. Lonsdorf, Gina M. Wimp, Joseph K. Bailey, and Thomas G. Whitham. 2006. Community heritability measures the evolutionary consequences of indirect genetic effects on community structure. Evolution 60:991–1003.
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Empirical and modeling study with simulated and natural communities illustrating that interspecific indirect genetic effects structure communities and their evolution. One of a few theoretical approaches in community genetics to model community interactions.
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Tétard-Jones, Catherine, Michael A. Kertesz, Patrick Gallois, and Richard E. Presiosi. 2007. Genotype-by-genotype interactions modified by a third species in a plant-insect system. American Naturalist 170:492–499.
DOI: 10.1086/520115Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study examining the role of genetic variation in associated species influencing interspecific interactions. Nice study indicating that genetic interactions among species can vary by biotic environments.
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Thompson, John N. 2005. The geographic mosaic of coevolution. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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Book outlining and highlighting that species traits may coevolve and diversify across geographic scales due to strong interactions with other species. Explains the importance of spatial variation in species evolutionary interactions. Excellent source for understanding coevolution and indirect genetic effects.
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Applications
Community genetic approaches not only are useful for understanding basic patterns driving community assembly and ecosystem processes but also have been successful in elucidating applied questions in a global change context. For example, understanding the roles of genetic variation and genetic interactions among species can reveal much more information about patterns of biodiversity, responses to climate change and disturbance, and the invasibility and persistence of invasive species than studies at the species level alone. The following subsections demonstrate how a community genetics approach has been successfully utilized to understand and predict outcomes to commonly occurring global change factors.
Biodiversity Studies
Intraspecific variation is part of the continuum of biodiversity that ranges from variation among genotypes to genotypic to species to phylogenetic diversity. Recent work in biodiversity studies such as Booth and Grime 2003 and Johnson, et al. 2006 have highlighted the importance of genotype and genotypic diversity to influence plant and arthropod community composition and trophic interactions. Similarly, Crutsinger, et al. 2006 found that genotypic diversity influenced arthropod community composition and productivity, while Madritch, et al. 2006 found that mixing leaf litter genotypes influenced rates of litter decomposition and nutrient release, although this effect was reduced when the genotypes were grown with fertilizer (see Genetic X Environment Interactions). Comparative studies such as Cook-Patton, et al. 2010 and Crawford and Rudgers 2013 have found that genetic variation may have larger effects on associated communities and processes than species diversity. Cadotte, et al. 2008 and Srivastava, et al. 2012 highlight the relevancy of phylogenetic diversity and niche conservatism to community ecology, representing the broadest form of biodiversity.
Booth, Rosemary E., and J. Phillip Grime. 2003. Effects of genetic impoverishment on plant community diversity. Journal of Ecology 91:721–730.
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2745.2003.00804.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Classic empirical study manipulating genotypic diversity within species mixture plots. Results show higher species diversity in the higher genetic diversity plots, indicating the importance of species genetic interactions to plant community diversity.
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Cadotte, Marc W., Bradley Cardinale, and Todd H. Oakley. 2008. Evolutionary history and the effect of biodiversity on plant productivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105:17012–17017.
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0805962105Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Reanalysis of published studies examining the relationship between evolutionary history (phylogenetic diversity) and plant biomass production. The authors conclude that in grassland studies evolutionary history explains more variation than species diversity by increasing niche breadth and competitor coexistence.
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Cook-Patton, Susan C., Scott H. McArt, Amy L. Parachnowitsch, Jennifer S. Thaler, and Anurag A. Agrawal. 2010. A direct comparison of the consequences of plant genotypic and species diversity on communities and ecosystem function. Ecology 92:915–923.
DOI: 10.1890/10-0999.1Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study manipulating genotypic and plant species diversity to assess the relative effects of each on aboveground plant production and arthropod species richness. Both production and arthropod richness showed equivalent responses to genotypic and species diversity but with different mechanisms. Important early study indicating the magnitude of community genetic findings.
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Crawford, Kerri M., and Jennifer A. Rudgers. 2013. Genetic diversity within a dominant plant outweighs plant species diversity in structuring an arthropod community. Ecology 94:1025–1035.
DOI: 10.1890/12-1468.1Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study manipulating species diversity, genetic diversity within a dominant species, and both together. The study indicated that genetic diversity more strongly influenced arthropod communities but was dependent upon the presence of surrounding species. Early study showing how two forms of biodiversity interact.
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Crutsinger, Gregory M., Michael D. Collins, James A. Fordyce, Zachariah Gombert, Chris C. Nice, and Nathan J. Sanders. 2006. Plant genotypic diversity predicts community structure and governs an ecosystem process. Science 313:966–968.
DOI: 10.1126/science.1128326Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
One of a few early empirical studies demonstrating the positive, non-additive effects of genotypic diversity on arthropod communities and plant biomass production.
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Johnson, Marc T. J., Marc J. Lajeunesse, and Anurag A. Agrawal. 2006. Additive and interactive effects of plant genotypic diversity on arthropod communities and plant fitness. Ecology Letters 9:24–34.
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Manipulations of genotypic diversity that found increasing diversity increased arthropod richness and abundance of omnivores and predators (but not herbivores) due to the combined effects of interactive and additive effects among genotypes in diverse patches. Excellent early study indicating the importance and mechanisms of plant genotypic diversity to communities.
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Madritch, Michael M., Jack R. Donaldson, and Richard L. Lindroth. 2006. Genetic identity of Populus tremuloides litter influences decomposition and nutrient release in a mixed forest stand. Ecosystems 9:528–537.
DOI: 10.1007/s10021-006-0008-2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Early study manipulating genetic identity, genotypic diversity, and environmental variation to understand effects on ecosystem processes. Genetic identity and environmental variation were more important to litter decomposition and nutrient release than genotypic diversity.
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Srivastava, Diane S., Marc W. Cadotte, A. Andrew M. McDonald, Robin G. Marushia, and Nicolas Mirotchnick. 2012. Phylogenetic diversity and the functioning of ecosystems. Ecology Letters 15:637–648.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01795.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Article highlighting the importance of phylogenetic diversity approaches for understanding ecosystem functioning. Because phylogenies can predict functional plant traits, the authors argue it is critical to study whether these traits impact species interactions and ecosystem processes.
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Climate Change
In the face of climate change, shifts in genetic structure of terrestrial plant species are occurring worldwide. Because different genotypes of plant species support different biota and species interactions, shifts in genetic composition are likely to have cascading effects on communities and ecosystems. While predicting the impact of climate change on species distributions is receiving much attention, a less appreciated reality demonstrated by Lavergne, et al. 2010 and Norberg, et al. 2012 is that climate change can alter plant population genetic structure. In response to climate change plants may tolerate changes, migrate, die, or adapt, and adaptation represents a particularly important and understudied response. Little work has been undertaken in this area to date, but community genetics approaches to climate change represent an important research direction. For example, Bradley and Pregitzer 2007; Grady, et al. 2011; and Florian, et al. 2013 illustrate how species and genetic variation within species will determine the range of plant traits and responses to elevated atmospheric CO2 and temperature. Similarly, Doi, et al. 2010 found that genetic diversity in plant populations can mediate responses to climate change.
Bradley, Kate L., and Kurt S. Pregitzer. 2007. Ecosystem assembly and terrestrial carbon balance under elevated CO2. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22:538–547.
DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2007.08.005Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Nice review that suggests that individual differences in plant physiology will dictate plant responses, community interactions, and total ecosystem response to elevated CO2. Good introduction to topic for undergraduate and graduate students.
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Doi, Hideyuki, Mayumi Takahashi, and Izumi Katano. 2010. Genetic diversity increases regional variation in phenological dates in response to climate change. Global Change Biology 16:373–379.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01993.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study from a long-term dataset showing the importance of genetic diversity to maximizing plant responses in phenology to changes in climate.
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Florian, J. Alberto, Sally N. Aitken, Ricardo Alia, et al. 2013. Potential for evolutionary responses to climate change: Evidence from tree populations. Global Change Biology 19:1645–1661.
DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12181Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Comprehensive review using 250 years of provenance trial data to examine the potential for trees to adapt to changing climatic conditions. Review highlights adaptation-related traits, quantitative genetic approaches, and models related to selection responses.
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Grady, Kevin C., Sharon M. Ferrier, Thomas E. Kolb, Stephen C. Hart, Gerard J. Allan, and Thomas G. Whitham. 2011. Genetic variation in productivity of foundation riparian species at the edge of their distribution: Implications for restoration and assisted migration in a warming climate. Global Change Biology 17:3724–3735.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02524.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study comparing the productivity of genotypes collected across a species range in an extreme habitat. Results indicate that some genotypes perform better than others, suggesting that genotype choice is critical for restoration.
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Lavergne, Sébastien, Nicholas Mouquet, Wilfried Thuiller, and Ophélie Ronce. 2010. Biodiversity and climate change: Integrating evolutionary and ecological responses of species and communities. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 41:321–350.
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144628Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Review of the empirical and theoretical work examining the role of microevolution, biotic interactions, and evolutionary ecology in community ecology in response to climate change. Good introduction, synthesis, and future directions for graduate students.
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Norberg, Jon, Mark C. Urban, Mark Vellend, Christopher A. Klausmeier, and Nicolas Loeuille. 2012. Eco-evolutionary responses of biodiversity to climate change. Nature Climate Change 2:747–751.
DOI: 10.1038/nclimate1588Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Theoretical modeling paper indicating the importance of genetic variation and species interactions to extinction risk and changes to biodiversity.
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Disturbance and Environmental Stress
Disturbance (including environmental stress and fragmentation) is the most extensive and severe process experienced by natural habitats globally. Disturbance is broadly recognized as a leading cause of biodiversity loss globally, with the study of disturbance effects on biodiversity a central pillar of conservation biology science. While decades of research on disturbance and stress have been directed at understanding the response of biological diversity at the species level, the long-term effects of disturbance as an evolutionary force affecting genotypic and functional trait diversity remains understudied. A community genetics approach to understand the importance of genetic and genotypic diversity to patterns of resilience and resistance by Hughes and Stachowicz 2004 and Reusch, et al. 2005 has revealed that increased genotypic diversity can lead to both resistance (stability) and resilience (recovery) to disturbance in natural systems, respectively.
Hughes, A. Randall, and John J. Stachowicz. 2004. Genetic diversity enhances the resistance of a seagrass ecosystem to disturbance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101:8998–9002.
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0402642101Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study demonstrating that increased genetic diversity (but not genotypic diversity) enhances community resistance to disturbance, although not resiliency. Classic study suitable for undergraduate and graduate students.
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Reusch, Thorsten B., Anneli Ehlers, August Hämmerli, and Boris Worm. 2005. Ecosystem recovery after climatic extremes enhanced by genotypic diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102:2826–2831.
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0500008102Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study demonstrating that genotypic diversity buffers against climatic extremes, leading to enhanced plant biomass production and density as well as positively impacting other trophic levels.
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Invasive Species
In the research effort to identify and explain the success of invasive species in their new range, genetic or evolutionary explanations for invasiveness are rarely invoked. As described in Lee 2002, stochastic events like founder’s events can limit genetic variation, which was long assumed to limit the evolutionary potential of invasive species. However, Prentis, et al. 2008 shows that successive founding events across the landscape may also result in the loss of less successful genotypes and higher mean population and range trait values. Moreover, population bottlenecks that reduce variation may convert epistatic to additive variation for important phenotypic traits. Distinct from the population genetic approaches to invasion biology, the importance of genetic variation and genotypic diversity for successful invasion has just begun to be studied and indicates some important results and promising directions for future research. Specifically, Crutsinger, et al. 2008 found that increasing genotypic diversity and specific productive genotypes could deter invasion, while Vellend, et al. 2010 found that specific genotypes (but not genotypic diversity) could deter invasive species. Both Lavergne and Molofsky 2007 and Lankau 2010 found that increased genetic variation can lead to successful invasions, suggesting the importance of community genetics approaches to invasion biology.
Crutsinger, Gregory M., Lara Souza, and Nathan J. Sanders. 2008. Intraspecific diversity and dominant genotypes resist plant invasions. Ecology Letters 11:16–23.
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Empirical study extending Elton’s diversity-resistance hypothesis that diverse plots resist invasion. They found that increasing genotypic diversity and monocultures of specific genotypes affected the richness, biomass, and cover of both native and exotic colonizing species.
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Lankau, Richard A. 2010. Genetic variation in allelochemistry determines an invasive species’ impact on microbial communities. Oecologia 165:453–463.
DOI: 10.1007/s00442-010-1736-8Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study examining the effects of genetic variation in an invasive herb that disrupts plant-soil mutualism networks of native species to allow invasion. The paper suggests the importance of variation among invasive genotypes and spatial and temporal variation in forest dynamics.
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Lavergne, Sébastien, and Jane Molofsky. 2007. Increased genetic variation and evolutionary potential drive the success of an invasive grass. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104:3883–3888.
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0607324104Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Nice empirical example of the evolutionary consequences of multiple introductions of a species and the consequences for genetic variation. Higher genetic diversity arising from hybridization allows for rapid selection of genotypes with high colonization ability and phenotypic plasticity.
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Lee, Carol E. 2002. Evolutionary genetics of invasive species. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 17:386–391.
DOI: 10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02554-5Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Nice review highlighting the importance of a genetic and genomic perspective to invasion biology. Good for graduate students and those with some genetic background.
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Prentis, Peter J., John R. U. Wilson, Eleanor E. Dormontt, David M. Richardson, and Andrew J. Lowe. 2008. Adaptive evolution in invasive species. Trends in Plant Science 13:288–294.
DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2008.03.004Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Review highlighting the mechanisms of rapid evolution in invasive species. Good review for students interested in adaptive evolution.
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Vellend, Mark, Emily B. M. Drummond, and Hiroshi Tomimatsu. 2010. Effects of genotypic identity and diversity on the invasiveness and invasibility of plant populations. Oecologia 162:371–381.
DOI: 10.1007/s00442-009-1480-0Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Empirical study examining the importance of genotype identity and genotypic diversity on the invasibility of a widespread species. Individual genotypes, but not genotype mixtures, influenced the fitness and performance of an invasive plant species.
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Article
- Accounting for Ecological Capital
- Adaptive Radiation
- Agroecology
- Allelopathy
- Allocation of Reproductive Resources in Plants
- Animals, Functional Morphology of
- Animals, Reproductive Allocation in
- Animals, Thermoregulation in
- Antarctic Environments and Ecology
- Anthropocentrism
- Applied Ecology
- Approaches and Issues in Historical Ecology
- Aquatic Conservation
- Aquatic Nutrient Cycling
- Archaea, Ecology of
- Assembly Models
- Autecology
- Bacterial Diversity in Freshwater
- Benthic Ecology
- Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning
- Biodiversity, Dimensionality of
- Biodiversity, Marine
- Biodiversity Patterns in Agricultural Systms
- Biofuels
- Biogeochemistry
- Biological Chaos and Complex Dynamics
- Biological Rhythms
- Biome, Alpine
- Biome, Boreal
- Biome, Desert
- Biome, Grassland
- Biome, Savanna
- Biome, Tundra
- Biomes, African
- Biomes, East Asian
- Biomes, Mountain
- Biomes, North American
- Biomes, South Asian
- Biophilia
- Braun, E. Lucy
- Bryophyte Ecology
- Butterfly Ecology
- Carson, Rachel
- Chemical Ecology
- Classification Analysis
- Coastal Dune Habitats
- Coevolution
- Communicating Ecology
- Communities and Ecosystems, Indirect Effects in
- Communities, Top-Down and Bottom-Up Regulation of
- Community Concept, The
- Community Ecology
- Community Genetics
- Community Phenology
- Competition and Coexistence in Animal Communities
- Competition in Plant Communities
- Complexity Theory
- Conservation Biology
- Conservation Genetics
- Coral Reefs
- Darwin, Charles
- Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems
- Decomposition
- De-Glaciation, Ecology of
- Dendroecology
- Disease Ecology
- Dispersal
- Drought as a Disturbance in Forests
- Early Explorers, The
- Earth’s Climate, The
- Eco-Evolutionary Dynamics
- Ecological Dynamics in Fragmented Landscapes
- Ecological Education
- Ecological Engineering
- Ecological Forecasting
- Ecological Informatics
- Ecological Relevance of Speciation
- Ecology, Introductory Sources in
- Ecology, Microbial (Community)
- Ecology of Emerging Zoonotic Viruses
- Ecology of the Atlantic Forest
- Ecology, Stochastic Processes in
- Ecosystem Ecology
- Ecosystem Engineers
- Ecosystem Multifunctionality
- Ecosystem Services
- Ecosystem Services, Conservation of
- Ecotourism
- Elton, Charles
- Endophytes, Fungal
- Energy Flow
- Environmental Anthropology
- Environmental Justice
- Environments, Extreme
- Ethics, Ecological
- European Natural History Tradition
- Evolutionarily Stable Strategies
- Facilitation and the Organization of Communities
- Fern and Lycophyte Ecology
- Fire Ecology
- Fishes, Climate Change Effects on
- Flood Ecology
- Food Webs
- Foraging Behavior, Implications of
- Foraging, Optimal
- Forests, Temperate Coniferous
- Forests, Temperate Deciduous
- Freshwater Invertebrate Ecology
- Genetic Considerations in Plant Ecological Restoration
- Genomics, Ecological
- Geoecology
- Geographic Range
- Gleason, Henry
- Grazer Ecology
- Greig-Smith, Peter
- Gymnosperm Ecology
- Habitat Selection
- Harper, John L.
- Harvesting Alternative Water Resources (US West)
- Heavy Metal Tolerance
- Heterogeneity
- Himalaya, Ecology of the
- Host-Parasitoid Interactions
- Human Ecology
- Human Ecology of the Andes
- Human-Wildlife Conflict and Coexistence
- Hutchinson, G. Evelyn
- Indigenous Ecologies
- Industrial Ecology
- Insect Ecology, Terrestrial
- Invasive Species
- Island Biogeography Theory
- Island Biology
- Keystone Species
- Kin Selection
- Landscape Dynamics
- Landscape Ecology
- Laws, Ecological
- Legume-Rhizobium Symbiosis, The
- Leopold, Aldo
- Lichen Ecology
- Life History
- Limnology
- Literature, Ecology and
- MacArthur, Robert H.
- Mangrove Zone Ecology
- Marine Fisheries Management
- Marine Subsidies
- Mass Effects
- Mathematical Ecology
- Mating Systems
- Maximum Sustainable Yield
- Metabolic Scaling Theory
- Metacommunity Dynamics
- Metapopulations and Spatial Population Processes
- Microclimate Ecology
- Mimicry
- Movement Ecology, Modeling and Data Analysis in
- Multiple Stable States and Catastrophic Shifts in Ecosyste...
- Mutualisms and Symbioses
- Mycorrhizal Ecology
- Natural History Tradition, The
- Networks, Ecological
- Niche Versus Neutral Models of Community Organization
- Niches
- Nutrient Foraging in Plants
- Ocean Sprawl
- Oceanography, Microbial
- Odum, Eugene and Howard
- Old Fields
- Ordination Analysis
- Organic Agriculture, Ecology of
- Paleoecology
- Paleolimnology
- Parental Care, Evolution of
- Pastures and Pastoralism
- Patch Dynamics
- Patrick, Ruth
- Peatlands
- Phenotypic Plasticity
- Phenotypic Selection
- Philosophy, Ecological
- Phylogenetics and Comparative Methods
- Physics, Ecology and
- Physiological Ecology of Nutrient Acquisition in Animals
- Physiological Ecology of Photosynthesis
- Physiological Ecology of Water Balance in Terrestrial Anim...
- Physiological Ecology of Water Balance in Terrestrial Plan...
- Plant Blindness
- Plant Disease Epidemiology
- Plant Ecological Responses to Extreme Climatic Events
- Plant-Insect Interactions
- Polar Regions
- Pollination Ecology
- Population Dynamics, Density-Dependence and Single-Species
- Population Dynamics, Methods in
- Population Ecology, Animal
- Population Ecology, Plant
- Population Fluctuations and Cycles
- Population Genetics
- Population Viability Analysis
- Populations and Communities, Dynamics of Age- and Stage-St...
- Predation and Community Organization
- Predation, Sublethal
- Predator-Prey Interactions
- Radioecology
- Reductionism Versus Holism
- Religion and Ecology
- Remote Sensing
- Restoration Ecology
- Rewilding
- Ricketts, Edward Flanders Robb
- Sclerochronology
- Secondary Production
- Seed Ecology
- Senescence
- Serpentine Soils
- Shelford, Victor
- Simulation Modeling
- Socioecology
- Soil Biogeochemistry
- Soil Ecology
- Spatial Pattern Analysis
- Spatial Patterns of Species Biodiversity in Terrestrial En...
- Spatial Scale and Biodiversity
- Species Distribution Modeling
- Species Extinctions
- Species Responses to Climate Change
- Species-Area Relationships
- Stability and Ecosystem Resilience, A Below-Ground Perspec...
- Stoichiometry, Ecological
- Stream Ecology
- Succession
- Sustainable Development
- Systematic Conservation Planning
- Systems Ecology
- Tansley, Sir Arthur
- Terrestrial Nitrogen Cycle
- Terrestrial Resource Limitation
- Territoriality
- Theory and Practice of Biological Control
- Thermal Ecology of Animals
- Tragedy of the Commons
- Transient Dynamics
- Trophic Levels
- Tropical Humid Forest Biome
- Urban Ecology
- Urban Forest Ecology
- Vegetation Classification
- Vegetation Dynamics, Remote Sensing of
- Vegetation Mapping
- Vicariance Biogeography
- Weed Ecology
- Wetland Ecology
- Whittaker, Robert H.
- Wildlife Ecology