Diversity

by

Stella M. Nkomo

• LAST REVIEWED: 03 May 2021
• LAST MODIFIED: 26 May 2021
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199846740-0031

Introduction

Diversity is defined as real and perceived differences among individuals or groups and the ways in which these differences affect interactions and relationships as well as the status of different groups in organizations. The types of differences include general ones of gender, race and ethnicity, nationality, and sexual orientation as well as individual differences such as personality. Theoretical and empirical knowledge about diversity draws from several fields, including psychology, social psychology, cognitive psychology, sociology, anthropology, cultural studies, and race and ethnic relations, as well as management. Though the relevant types of diversity may differ from one country to another, the core issue is how to effectively manage the benefits of diversity and mitigate its negative effects as well as preventing the exclusion and devaluation of members of non-dominant groups.

Textbooks

There are a limited number of diversity textbooks. However, most of the widely used management, organizational behavior, and human resource management textbooks typically include a section or even a chapter devoted to the topic of diversity. Because diversity research and practice emanated from the United States, the largest number of textbooks are by US authors. A large section of most textbooks is devoted to describing the particular demographic groups within the country and their history and experiences in the workplace. Bell 2017 is an example of this type of textbook as it centers on diversity in the US context as well as Byrd and Scott 2018. Mor Barak 2016 offers a global approach to the subject. In a similar vein, Özbilgin and Tatli 2008 focuses on helping students gain a global understanding of the multilayered nature of diversity, as well as acquiring tools for comparative analysis across contexts and levels. Gatrell and Swan 2008 is a condensed, introductory paperback textbook. Another diversity textbook format contains not only subject matter but also practical exercises. This approach is typified by Carr-Ruffino 2012. More recently, theme-oriented or topic-specific textbooks have been published. Examples of these types are Kirton and Greene 2010 and Özbilgin and Syed 2010.

• Bell, Myrtle P. Diversity in Organizations. 3d ed. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2017.

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  Although the book focuses on the demographic composition of the US labor force, one of its strengths is the inclusion of relevant research from the fields of psychology, sociology, management, and other relevant disciplines.

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• Byrd, Marilyn Y., and Chaunda Scott. Diversity in the Workplace: Current Issues and Emerging Trends. New York: Routledge, 2018.

  DOI: 10.4324/9781315188980Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An integrated teaching resource from a USA perspective that provides students with the tools and methodologies to understand and respond to the multiple dynamics and challenges that emerge from difference in the workplace.

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• Carr-Ruffino, Norma. Managing Diversity: People Skills for a Multicultural Workplace. 9th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2012.

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  The unique feature of this textbook is the combination of diversity content with practical exercises on topics ranging from cultural differences to discrimination. First published in 1998, it continues to be popular.

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• Gatrell, Caroline, and Elaine Swan. Gender and Diversity in Management: A Concise Introduction. London: SAGE, 2008.

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  This is a nifty, concise introductory textbook on diversity in management. Its length does not compromise substance.

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• Kirton, Gill, and Anne-Marie Greene. The Dynamics of Managing Diversity: A Critical Approach. 3d ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2010.

  DOI: 10.4324/9780080966175Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This textbook provides a thorough critical treatment of diversity with a specific focus on the UK and European context.

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• Mor Barak, Michàlle E. Managing Diversity: Toward a Globally Inclusive Workplace. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2016.

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  This paperback textbook takes a global perspective on diversity issues and offers a thorough exposition of relevant theory. A unique feature is chapters on how organizations can achieve an inclusive workforce.

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• Özbilgin, Mustafa, and Jawad Syed. Managing Cultural Diversity in Asia: A Research Companion. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2010.

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  Provides an overview of the complex diversity issues in several Asian countries.

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• Özbilgin, Mustafa, and Ahu Tatli. Global Diversity Management: An Evidence-Based Approach. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

  DOI: 10.1007/978-1-137-26059-8Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Similar to Mor Barak 2016, the authors offer an in-depth treatment of diversity from a global perspective. The interesting and fresh approach provides students with a rigorous multilayered approach that contextualizes diversity issues while offering assorted tools for further exploration.

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Reference Works

Diversity is a relatively new field of study and consequently the most up-to-date information is readily found in a wide range of journals. Because the field was initially largely practitioner-driven, a number of practical reference sources appeared quite early and continue to be published. However, the number of research-based handbooks, book chapters, and other edited compilations is growing that are valuable references for gaining access to current research and thinking about diversity in organizations. One of the first research handbooks to comprehensively describe the field of diversity is Konrad, et al. 2006. Özbilgin 2009 is an excellent handbook for anyone seeking to grasp the international scope of the field. More recent handbooks include Booysen, et al. 2018; Bendl, et al. 2015; Just, et al. 2020; Klarsfeld 2016; Roberson 2013; and Vertovec 2015. In addition to handbooks, numerous important chapters in edited volumes represent excellent reference resources for the field. These include the seminal chapter Cox and Nkomo 1996 (cited under History and Trends), which is included in the award-winning volume Clegg, et al. 2006. Chatman 2010 (cited under Work Team) was published in the Academy of Management Annals (see Journals). Readers should also consult discipline-based annual reviews like the Annual Review of Psychology (see Journals) and SIOP’s Organizational Frontiers series that publishes books on diversity related topics (Dipboye and Colella 2012).

• Bendl, Regine, Inge Bleijenbergh, Elina Henttonen, and Albert J. Mills, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Diversity in Organizations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

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  A wide-ranging theoretical overview of diversity in organizations.

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• Booysen, Lize A., Regine Bendl, and Judith K. Pringle, eds. Handbook of Research Methods in Diversity Management, Equality and Inclusion at Work. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2018.

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  This book focuses on epistemologies and research methods for diversity research.

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• Clegg, Stewart, Cynthia Hardy, and Walter R. Nord, eds. The SAGE Handbook of Organization Studies. 5th ed. London: SAGE, 2006.

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  The contributions in the handbook are authored by a top team of international scholars in the field of organization studies. The chapters provide retrospective and prospective analyses of current topics by synthesizing existing knowledge. Chapters on diversity can be found in all editions.

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• Dipboye, Robert L., and Adrienne Colella, eds. Discrimination at Work: The Psychological and Organizational Bases. New York: Psychology Press, 2012.

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  In-depth coverage of discrimination in the workplace.

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• Just, Sine N., Anette Risberg, and Florence Villesèche, eds. The Routledge Companion to Organizational Diversity Research Methods. New York: Routledge, 2020.

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  Provides empirically informed contributions and suggestions for diversity research using different methodological perspectives.

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• Klarsfeld, Alain, ed. Research Handbook of International and Comparative Perspectives on Diversity Management. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2016.

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  This handbook refreshingly departs from the idea of diversity as a universal concept. Instead, the volume explores diversity and equal opportunity across a number of countries. Students will gain an international understanding of how national contexts shapes the conceptualization of diversity as well as practices associated with managing diversity.

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• Konrad, Alison M., Pushkala Prasad, and Judith K. Pringle, eds. The Handbook of Workplace Diversity. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2006.

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  Comprising twenty-one chapters, this is the first research-based handbook to offer in-depth coverage of diversity topics ranging from psychological perspectives on diversity to homophobia in the workplace. The chapters are authored by some of the leading scholars in the field of diversity. Its extensive set of references alone is a valuable resource for students.

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• Özbilgin, Mustafa, ed. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion at Work: A Research Companion. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2009.

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  This interdisciplinary volume contains thirty-one contributions that span the field of diversity, from some of the top diversity scholars in the United States, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and European countries.

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• Roberson, Quinetta M., ed. The Oxford Handbook of Diversity and Work. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

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  A comprehensive overview of the diversity field.

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• Vertovec, Steven, ed. Routledge International Handbook of Diversity Studies. New York: Routledge, 2015.

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  This handbook includes forty-one chapters that cover a wide range of diversity topics ranging from its dimensions, policies, and politics to practice.

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Journals

Journals are the best sources for leading-edge knowledge and developments in the field of diversity. Because of the scope of issues studied within the field, diversity research has been published in a variety of journals focusing on management, organization behavior, organization studies, human resource management, psychology, sociology, and organization studies. The leading journals in these areas are published by the Academy of Management (AOM) (Academy of Management Annals), the American Psychological Association (Journal of Applied Psychology), and the American Sociological Association. The American Sociological Review is the flagship journal of the American Sociological Association. The Academy of Management Review is the theoretical journal of AOM, while the Academy of Management Journal publishes empirical research articles. The Journal of Applied Psychology is the leading APA journal for diversity issues from the standpoint of psychological theory. Other high-quality journals that feature diversity research include British Journal of Management and Group & Organization Management. A relatively new journal devoted to diversity in organizations is Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal. Finally, students should also be aware of an important journal that targets a specific aspect of diversity: Gender, Work and Organization.

• Academy of Management Annals. 2007–.

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  This is an annual publication of the Academy of Management, the premier association for management scholars. The Annals was recently ranked third out of 144 management journals. Each annual edition provides comprehensive, critical literature reviews of recent advances in a diverse set of management areas.

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• Academy of Management Journal. 1958–.

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  This is the leading journal in the field of management and is published bimonthly by the Academy of Management. It publishes only original empirical research that covers a range of management topics, including diversity.

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• Academy of Management Review. 1976–.

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  This is the leading theoretical journal in the field of management. Published bimonthly by the Academy of Management, it is known for its publication of major theoretical and conceptual developments in the field. Major theoretical breakthroughs in the field of diversity have been published here.

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• American Sociological Review. 1936–.

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  This bimonthly flagship journal of the American Sociological Association (ASA) publishes original articles of interest to the sociology discipline in general, new theoretical developments, results of research that advance our understanding of fundamental social processes, and important methodological innovations.

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• Annual Review of Psychology. 1950–.

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  The Annual Review of Psychology has been published since 1950 and covers significant developments in the field of psychology across a wide range of topics. Its definitive stature makes it important reading for anyone who needs to be aware of leading-edge thinking and scholarship. It has on occasion published reviews relevant to the field of diversity.

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• British Journal of Management. 1990–.

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  This is one of the official journals of the British Academy of Management. The journal publishes original empirical articles on a wide range of topics in the field of management. A number of articles have been published on diversity around the globe. The journal appears four times a year.

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• Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal. 1981–.

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  This journal, published eight times a year, provides an outlet for critical and rigorous exploration of diversity issues including gender, ethnicity, class, disability, age, sexual orientation, and religion, as well as other forms of inequalities in the context of society, organizations, and work.

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• Gender, Work and Organization. 1994–.

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  This highly rated bimonthly journal publishes contributions that bring an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary perspective to the study of gender in organizations.

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• Group & Organization Management. 1976–.

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  This bimonthly journal features articles that demonstrate conceptual sophistication, methodological rigor, and cutting-edge scholarship and extend management and organization knowledge. A number of articles have been published on a broad range of diversity-related topics.

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• Journal of Applied Psychology. 1917–.

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  This bimonthly journal publishes both empirical and theoretical articles on a number of diversity topics. It is published by the American Psychological Association.

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History and Trends

The concept of diversity emerged in the literature on human resource management and organizational behavior as a result of practitioners becoming concerned about the human resource management implications of workforce projections made in Johnston and Packer 1987, which predicted an increasing number of ethnic minorities and women would be entering the US labor force. As a consequence, attention was brought to the need for organizations and managers to manage the increasing diversity of the workforce. The early development of diversity as a concept and practice was mostly practitioner driven (Cox and Nkomo 1996). Thus, the theoretical and empirical development of diversity is a relatively new phenomenon; the concept is rather young compared to other fields in management. Prior to the emergence of the concept of diversity, issues of demographic differences in organizations fell under the rubric of equal opportunity and affirmative action. See Thomas 1990 and Kelly and Dobbin 1998 for excellent discussions of the transition from affirmative action to diversity management. Much of the early theoretical work focused on defining the concept, Cox 1993 and Cox and Nkomo 1996 played a pioneering role in demarcating diversity theory. Since that time, numerous authors have contributed to the development of the field. Research and theory has moved from concept development, documenting the effects of diverse identifies in organizations, experiences of non-dominant groups, and the effects of diversity on performance to the relatively new paradigm of diversity and inclusion exemplified in Shore, et al. 2011. Recently, several scholars have attempted to broaden the field by examining diversity through critical theories such as post-structuralism, postcolonialism, labor process theory, cultural studies, and institutional theories (see Theories), while others (Özkazanç-Pan and Calás 2015) stress the transnational context of f diversity in organizations. There are number of excellent recent reviews of trends in diversity theorizing (Dwertmann, et al. 2016; Nkomo, et al. 2019; Roberson 2019; Roberson, et al. 2017).

• Cox, Taylor, Jr. Cultural Diversity in Organizations: Theory, Research and Practice. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 1993.

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  This pioneering book received the Academy of Management’s prestigious George R. Terry Book Award for its outstanding contribution to the advancement of diversity research and theory.

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• Cox, Taylor, Jr., and Stella Nkomo. “Diverse Identities in Organizations.” In The SAGE Handbook of Organization Studies. Edited by Stewart Clegg, Cynthia Hardy, and Walter R. Nord, 338–356. London: SAGE, 1996.

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  One of the first comprehensive theoretical literature reviews to position diversity within organization studies.

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• Dwertmann, David J., Lisa H. Nishii, and Daan van Knippenberg. “Disentangling the Fairness & Discrimination and Synergy Perspectives on Diversity Climate: Moving the Field Forward.” Journal of Management 42.5 (2016):1136–1168.

  DOI: 10.1177/0149206316630380Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Provides a comprehensive review of diversity climate and recommendations for advancing the concept.

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• Johnston, William B., and Arnold H. Packer. Workforce 2000: Work and Workers for the 21st Century. Indianapolis, IN: Hudson Institute, 1987.

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  This demographic forecast in this seminal book is often credited with inaugurating the issue of diversity in organizations.

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• Kelly, Erin, and Frank Dobbin. “How Affirmative Action Became Diversity Management.” American Behavioral Scientist 41.7 (1998): 960–984.

  DOI: 10.1177/0002764298041007008Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Using neo-institutional theory, the authors offer an interesting argument for how affirmative action became diversity management.

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• Nkomo, Stella M., Myrtle Bell, Laura M. Roberts, Arpani Joshi, and Sherry M. Thatcher. “Diversity at a Critical Juncture: New Theories for a Complex Phenomenon.” Academy of Management Review 44.3 (2019): 498–517.

  DOI: 10.5465/amr.2019.0103Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Reviews fifty years of diversity research and identifies future research needs for a different volatile social context and introduces articles in a special topic forum on diversity theory.

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• Özkazanç-Pan, B., and Marta B. Calás. “From Here to There and Back Again: Transnational Perspectives on Diversity in Organizations.” In The Oxford Handbook of Diversity in Organizations. Edited by Regine Bendl, Inge Bleijenbergh, Elina Henttonen and Albert J. Mills, 575–603. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

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  Reviews the contours of the emerging literature on transnational diversity.

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• Roberson, Quinetta M. “Diversity in the Workplace: A Review, Synthesis, and Future Research Agenda.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 6 (2019): 69–88.

  DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012218-015243Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This review synthesizes theoretical, empirical, and practical knowledge about diversity in organizations.

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• Roberson, Quinetta M., Ann Marie Ryan, and Belle R. Ragins. “The Evolution and Future Diversity at Work.” Journal of Applied Psychology 102.3 (2017): 483–499.

  DOI: 10.1037/apl0000161Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article describes the evolution of diversity in articles published in the Journal of Applied Psychology.

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  • Medline

• Shore, Lynn, Amy E. Randel, Beth G. Chung, Michelle A. Dean, and Karen Holcombe Ehrhart. “Inclusion and Diversity in Work Groups: A Review and Model for Future Research.” Journal of Management 37.4 (2011): 1262–1289.

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  Drawing upon optimal distinctiveness theory, the authors present a framework of inclusion that includes contextual factors as well as the outcomes associated with inclusion.

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• Thomas, Roosevelt R. “From Affirmative Action to Affirming Diversity.” Harvard Business Review (March–April 1990): 107–119.

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  This frequently cited classic argues for the need for organizations to move from a focus on affirmative action to valuing diversity.

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Dimensions

Despite its significant development over time, one of the persistent areas of examination has been defining the meaning of the construct of diversity. The debate has centered on the relative significance of what have come to be known as surface-level diversity and deep-level diversity (Harrison, et al. 1998). The former sometimes refers to immutable and observable differences, typically including race, age, sex, nationality, and ethnicity. Deep-level diversity has been defined as heterogeneity based on attitudes, beliefs, and values. These differences are not directly observable but are communicated through verbal and nonverbal behavior patterns. Another distinction offered is that deep-level diversity is more mutable and changeable. Harrison and Klein 2007 argues for conceptualizing diversity as separation, variety, and disparity to move the field forward. Yet what is most important about these different dimensions of diversity is understanding their complex interaction in relationship to outcomes. For examples of these complex interactions, see Harrison, et al. 2002 and Williams, et al. 2006.

• Harrison, David A., and Katherine J. Klein. “What’s the Difference? Diversity Constructs as Separation, Variety, or Disparity in Organizations.” Academy of Management Review 32.4 (2007): 1199–1228.

  DOI: 10.5465/AMR.2007.26586096Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Conceptualizes three distinctive types of diversity and proposes ways each should be measured and tested.

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• Harrison, David A., Kenneth H. Price, and Myrtle P. Bell. “Beyond Relational Demography: Time and the Effects of Surface- and Deep-Level Diversity on Work Group Cohesion.” Academy of Management Journal 41.1 (1998): 96–107.

  DOI: 10.2307/256901Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A seminal and highly cited article that introduced the concepts of deep-level diversity and surface-level diversity and their different effects on work group cohesion.

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• Harrison, David A., Kenneth H. Price, Joanne Gavin, and Anna T. Florey. “Time, Teams and Task Performance: Changing Effects of Surface and Deep-Level Diversity on Group Functioning.” Academy of Management Journal 45.5 (2002): 1029–1045.

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  Empirical evidence that, over time, team member collaboration weakens the effects of surface-level diversity but strengthens deep-level diversity effects and their impact on team outcomes.

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• Williams, Kathy A., Gregory B. Northcraft, and Margaret A. Neale. “Surface-Level Diversity and Decision-Making in Groups: When Does Deep-Level Similarity Help?” Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 9.4 (2006): 467–482.

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  Examines the relative strength of surface-level and deep-level heterogeneity on the performance of groups in a decision-making task.

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Perspectives

Diversity perspectives represent an effort to categorize different approaches that organizations use for the management of diversity. One of the earliest categorization efforts is Cox 1991, in which the author describes three different approaches to diversity in organizations. However, one of the most frequently referenced typologies of diversity perspectives is that of Thomas and Ely 1996. The learning-and-effectiveness paradigm is cited as the only perspective for tapping diversity’s true benefits. A common theme in all diversity perspective literature is the need for organizational approaches that strive for inclusion, whereby the diverse knowledge and skills of all identity groups are effectively utilized to shape strategy, structure, and organizational culture. This theme sparked a body of research on the business case for diversity that examines its impact on firm-performance. The seminal study by Richard 2000 has been followed by more recent studies that point to the complexities of establishing the business case (Hoobler, et al. 2018; Roberson, et al. 2017). In recent years, Ferdman and Deane 2014 and Shore, et al. 2011 (the latter cited under History and Trends) have proposed inclusion as a new perspective for managing diversity in organizations.

• Cox, Taylor, Jr. “The Multicultural Organization.” Academy of Management Perspectives 5.2 (1991): 34–47.

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  Cox offers a diversity continuum of three organizational approaches to diversity. Monolithic organizations that are homogenous with few minority employees tend to use formal policy alone to incorporate diversity. Plural organizations are relatively more heterogeneous through affirmative action programs and other interventions, while multicultural organizations value diversity and transform the structure and culture to fully integrate nondominant groups.

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• Ferdman, Bernardo M., and Barbara Deane. Diversity at Work: The Practice of Inclusion. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2014.

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  Research-based exposition of the practice for inclusion in the workplace.

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• Hoobler, Jenny M., Courtney R. Masterson, Stella M. Nkomo, and Eric J. Michel. “The Business Case for Women Leaders: Meta-analysis, Research Critique, and Path Forward.” Journal of Management 44.6 (2018): 2473–2499.

  DOI: 10.1177/0149206316628643Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A meta-analysis that examines the complexities of the relationship between the presence of women leaders in organizations and performance.

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• Richard, Orlando C. “Racial Diversity, Business Strategy and Firm Performance: A Resource-Based View.” Academy of Management Journal 43.2 (2000): 164–177.

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  One of the most-cited works on diversity and organization performance. Richard employs a resource-based view of the firm to demonstrate the positive effects of racial diversity on firm performance.

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• Roberson, Quinetta M., Oscar Holmes, and Jamie L. Perry. “Transforming Research on Diversity and Firm Performance: A Dynamic Capabilities Perspective.” Academy of Management Annals 11.1 (2017): 189–216.

  DOI: 10.5465/annals.2014.0019Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Integrates theory and research from macro and micro research domains to shed light on the complex relationship between diversity and firm-level performance.

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• Thomas, David A., and Robin Ely. “Making Differences Matter: A New Paradigm for Managing Diversity.” Harvard Business Review 74.5 (September–October 1996): 79–90.

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  The authors describe three different diversity perspectives found in their research: the discrimination-and-fairness paradigm, the access-and-legitimacy paradigm, and the learning-and-effectiveness paradigm. In describing these empirically derived paradigms, the authors also offer also practical examples of their use in the organizations they studied.

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Theories

Diversity scholars have drawn from an eclectic set of theories, largely from the fields of psychology, social psychology, cognitive psychology, social psychology, sociology, and gender studies. The most prominent are Social Identity Theory and Self-Categorization Theories, Relational Demography Theory, Intersectionality Theory, Faultline Theory, Aversive Racism Theory, and Critical Diversity Theory.

Race and Ethnicity

Despite the existence of a large body of sociological work on race and ethnicity, its uptake in the management and organization behavior field continues to grow slowly. One of the earliest articles on its dynamics in the workplace is Alderfer, et al. 1980. Drawing heavily from intergroup relations theory from the leading work of social psychologists like Thomas Pettigrew (Pettigrew 1998), Alderfer and colleagues extended the ideas specifically to organizations and to effects of race relations in organizations. Generally, however, until the late 1990s research on race and ethnicity in this context was rare. A seminal article, Nkomo 1992, points to the general invisibility of its presence in the literature of organization behavior and management. Most of the research in the field can be grouped under three themes: experiences of racial and ethnicity minorities antecedents and outcomes of race and ethnicity (Ibarra 1995) and identity construction (Dickens and Chavez 2018). Recently, attention has been given to anti-racism, racism, racial discrimination, systemic racism, racialization, and whiteness (see Al Ariss, et al. 2014; Colella, et al. 2017; Ray 2019; Liu 2020; van Laer and Zanoni 2020). Research on the experiences of racial and ethnic minorities has been historically focused on black people in the United States. While contemporary studies can still be found on the experiences of African Americans (Roberts, et al. 2019), an extension has been made to other US racial and ethnic groups (DelCampo and Blancero 2008 and, for Asian Americans, Kawahara and van Kirk 2010) as well as to those in other countries (Atewologun and Singh 2010 and Ozturk and Berber 2020).

• Al Ariss, Akram, Mustafa Özbilgin, Ahu Tatli, and Kurt April. “Tackling Whiteness in Organizations and Management.” Journal of Managerial Psychology 29.4 (2014): 362–369.

  DOI: 10.1108/JMP-10-2013-0331Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Introduction to a volume on whiteness in management and organization studies.

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• Alderfer, Clayton P., Charleen Alderfer, Robert Tucker, and Leota Tucker. “Diagnosing Race Relations in Management.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 16.2 (1980): 135–166.

  DOI: 10.1177/002188638001600202Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A classic article in which the authors use Alderfer’s theory of embedded intergroup relations to examine racial dynamics in an organizational setting.

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• Atewologun, Doyin, and Val Singh. “Challenging Ethnic and Gender Identities: An Exploration of UK Black Professionals’ Identity Construction.” Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal 29.4 (2010): 332–347.

  DOI: 10.1108/02610151011042394Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An empirical study of extra identity work of young black male and female professionals in the United Kingdom.

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• Colella, Adrienne, Mikki Hebl, and Eden King. “One Hundred Years of Discrimination Research in the Journal of Applied Psychology: A Sobering Synopsis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 102.3 (2017): 500–513.

  DOI: 10.1037/apl0000084Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Reviews one hundred years of research on discrimination (including racial discrimination) in the Journal of Applied Psychology.

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  • Medline

• DelCampo, Robert G., and Donna Maria Blancero. “Perceptions of psychological contract fairness of Hispanic professionals.” Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal 15.3 (2008): 300–315.

  DOI: 10.1108/13527600810892576Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An empirical examination of Hispanic business professionals' perception of psychological contract fairness, perception of discrimination, and the influence of autonomous status judgments on these variables.

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• Dickens, Danielle D., and Ernest. L. Chavez. “Navigating the Workplace: “The Costs and Benefits of Shifting Identities at Work among Early Career US Black Women.” Sex Roles 78 (2018): 760–774.

  DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0844-xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Examines the shifting identities of US black women working in predominantly white contexts.

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• Ibarra, Hermina. “Race, Opportunity, and Diversity of Social Circles in Managerial Networks.” Academy of Management Journal 38.3 (1995): 673–703.

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  A frequently cited empirical examination of the effects of race on social networks of minority managers and their negative impact on career progress.

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• Kawahara, Debra M., and Jaye Jang Van Kirk. “Asian Americans in the Workplace: Facing Prejudice and Discrimination in Multiple Contexts.” The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination: A Revised and Condensed Edition (2010): 81–95.

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  Describes the discrimination and prejudice experienced by Asian Americans.

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• Liu, Helena. “Diversity beyond whiteness: The Possibilities for Anti-racist Diversity Research.” In The Routledge Companion to Organizational Diversity Research Methods. Edited by Sine N. Just, Anette Risberg, and Florence Villesèche, 24–35. New York, Routledge, 2020.

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  Describes how white supremacy ideology permeates diversity research.

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• Nkomo, Stella M. “The Emperor Has No Clothes: Rewriting Race in Organizations.” Academy of Management Review 17.3 (1992): 487–513.

  DOI: 10.2307/258720Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A seminal article calling for scholars to incorporate race as an analytical category in the study of organizations.

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• Ozturk, Mustafa. B., and Aykut Berber. “Racialised Professionals’ Experiences of Selective Incivility in Organisations: A Multi-level Analysis of Subtle Racism.” Human Relations (2020): OnlineFirst.

  DOI: 10.1177/0018726720957727Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Using a multilevel approach (individual, organizational, and societal), the authors illuminate the experiences of subtle racism.

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• Pettigrew, Thomas. “Intergroup Contact Theory.” Annual Review of Psychology 49 (1998): 65–85.

  DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Comprehensively identifies the deficiencies in the extant knowledge about the conditions for optimal intergroup contact and proposes a theoretical extension to address the gaps.

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• Ray, Victor. “A Theory of Racialized Organizations.” American Sociological Review 84.1 (2019): 26–53.

  DOI: 10.1177/0003122418822335Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Develops a theory of racialized organizations by bridging work in the fields of organization theory and race and ethnicity.

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• Roberts, Laura M., Anthony J. Mayo, and David A. Thomas, eds. Race, Work, and Leadership: New Perspectives on the Black Experience. Boston: Harvard Business Press, 2019.

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  This edited volume provides a sweeping and in-depth analysis of the experiences of black leaders in the professions in the United States.

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• van Laer, Koen, and Patrizia P. Zanoni. “Ethnicity, Race, and National Identity in Management and Organization Studies.” In The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism. Edited by John Stone, Rutledge M. Dennis, Polly Rizova, and Xiaoshuo Hou, 487–506. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2020.

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  This chapter provides a critique of the dominant approach to race, ethnicity, and nationalism in the field of management and organization studies, particularly its depoliticized and individualistic treatment of the topic.

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Gender

Gender diversity research initially began with a focus on documenting discrimination against women, particularly in terms of upward mobility in male-dominated management positions. Early seminal works include Schein 1973 on sex role stereotypes and the classic book Kanter 1977, which introduced the concept of tokenism and its effects on women in corporations. Research on gender diversity in management has proliferated since that time along several lines of inquiry. While the initial body of research focused on sex differences between men and women, works like Calás and Smircich 1996 and Ely and Padavic 2007 expanded the study of gender diversity by introducing feminist perspectives on the social construction of gender. Acker 1990, a classic article, pioneered the concept of gendered organizations. A recent special issue focuses on the monumental impact of Acker’s work to the study of gender diversity in organizations (see Pullen, et al. 2019). Bell, et al. 2019 provides an overview of contemporary feminist perspectives. The recognition that research in gender diversity should study both men and women in organizations was pioneered by David Collinson and Jeff Hearn (Collinson and Hearn 1994) in their work on masculinities. Another dominant strand of work on gender diversity has concentrated on understanding work and family issues in the workplace (Powell, et al. 2019). Pitt-Catsouphes, et al. 2006 provides a comprehensive theoretical and methodological overview of the work and family literature. Current handbooks (Kumra, et al. 2014) assist greatly in navigating the vast amount of scholarship on gender diversity in organizations. Two emerging areas of research are transnational perspectives on gender diversity, which recognizes that gender relations and gender practices transcend their point of interest in the United States (see a special issue of Gender, Work and Society (Calás, et al. 2010), and postcolonial feminist perspectives (see Metcalfe and Woodhams 2012).

• Acker, Joan. “Hierarchies, Jobs and Bodies: A Theory of Gendered Organizations.” Gender and Society 4.2 (1990): 139–158.

  DOI: 10.1177/089124390004002002Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A highly cited, definitive work that explains the processes that “gender” organizations.

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• Bell, Emma, Susan Meriläinen, Scott Taylor, and Janne Tienari. “Time’s Up! Feminist Theory and Activism Meets Organization Studies.” In Special Issue: Organizing Feminism: Bodies, Practices and Ethics. Edited by Emma Bell, Susan Meriläinen, Scott Taylor, and Janne Tienari. Human Relations 72.1 (2019): 4–22.

  DOI: 10.1177/0018726718790067Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Introduction to special issue on contemporary feminist theory and its contributions to management and organization studies.

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• Calás, Marta B., and Linda Smircich. “From ‘the Woman’s’ Point of View’: Feminist Approaches to Organization Studies.” In The Handbook of Organization Studies. Edited by Stewart Clegg, Cynthia Hardy, and Walter R. Nord, 218–258. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1996.

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  A breakthrough publication that introduced feminist approaches to the study of gender in organizations.

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• Calás, Marta B., Linda Smircich, Janne Tienari, and Camilla Funck Ellehave. “Observing Globalized Capitalism: Gender and Ethnicity as an Entry Point.” In Special Issue: Gender & Ethnicity. Gender, Work & Organization 17.3 (2010): 243–247.

  DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0432.2010.00516.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Introduces a special issue devoted to demonstrating the transnational interconnectedness of women in six different countries under conditions of globalization.

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• Collinson, David, and Jeff Hearn. “Naming Men as Men: Implications for Work, Organization and Management.” Gender, Work & Organization 1.1 (1994): 2–22.

  DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0432.1994.tb00002.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Introduced the idea that understanding masculinities is central to organizational analysis and the study of gender in organizations.

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• Ely, Robin, and Irene Padavic. “A Feminist Analysis of Organizational Research on Sex Differences.” Academy of Management Journal 32.4 (2007): 1121–1143.

  DOI: 10.5465/AMR.2007.26585842Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A twenty-five-year review of the empirical research on sex differences in organizations that points to its limitations as well as providing an agenda for future research.

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• Kanter, Rosabeth Moss. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books, 1977.

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  An award-winning ethnographic monograph that is recognized as a classic study of gender in organizations.

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• Kumra, Savita, Ruth Simpson, and Ronald J. Burke, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Gender in Organizations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

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  Chapters focus on gender inequality and its impact in organizations from diverse theoretical lenses.

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• Metcalfe, Beverly Dawn, and Carol Woodhams. “Introduction: New Directions in Gender, Diversity and Organization Theorizing; Re‐imagining Feminist Post‐colonialism, Transnationalism and Geographies of Power.” In Special Issue: Advancements in Gender, Diversity and Management Theorising. Edited by Carol Woodhams, Jamie L. Callahan, and Beverly Dawn Metcalfe. International Journal of Management Reviews 14.2 (2012): 123–140.

  DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2370.2012.00336.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Advances gender and diversity by integrating feminist postcolonial scholarship, transnationalism, and geographies of space and place.

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• Pitt-Catsouphes, Marcie, Ellen E. Kossek, and Stephen Sweet, eds. The Work and Family Handbook: Multi-disciplinary Perspectives, Methods, and Approaches. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006.

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  The first handbook to offer a comprehensive set of chapters on the study of work-family relationships, theory, and methods.

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• Powell, Gary N., Jeffrey H. Greenhaus, Tammy D. Allen, and Russell Johnson. “Introduction to Special Topic Forum: Advancing and Expanding Work-Life Theory from Multiple Perspectives.” Academy of Management Review 44.1 (2019): 54–71.

  DOI: 10.5465/amr.2018.0310Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Introduction to a special topic forum offering new perspectives on work-life theory.

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• Pullen, Alison, Deborah Kerfoot, Jenny Rodriguez, and Patricia Lewis. “Remembering Joan Acker through Friendship, Sociological Thought and Activism.” In Special Issue: Professor Joan Acker, 1924–2016. Edited by Alison Pullen, Deborah Kerfoot, Jenny Rodriguez, and Patricia Lewis. Gender, Work & Organization 26.12 (2019): 1669–1675.

  DOI: 10.1111/gwao.12430Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Introduction to a special issue with contributions about the indelible impact of Acker’s work on gender diversity in organizations.

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• Schein, Virginia E. “The Relationship between Sex Role Stereotypes and Requisite Management Characteristics.” Journal of Applied Psychology 57.2 (1973): 95–100.

  DOI: 10.1037/h0037128Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A seminal study introducing the “think manager, think male” hypothesis, which pointed to the gender stereotyping of the managerial role.

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  • Medline

Sexual Orientation

Relative to the literature on race and gender diversity, the body of knowledge about sexual orientation is rather sparse. Studies of experiences of discrimination and of the effects of disclosure on the affective and material outcomes for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) employees and heterosexism in organizations have dominated the existing literature (see Colgan and Rumens 2015). A number of important articles focus on the costs and impact of disclosure on LGBTQ employees. For example, Ragins 2001, an often-cited article, finds that disclosure of sexual orientation at work is related to discrimination and fewer promotions. Gregory 2011 demonstrates how homophobia is narratively constructed in organization settings. Research can also be found on effective organizational policies and strategies for the inclusion of LGBTQ employees as well as the benefits of sexual orientation diversity for organizations. For example, Creed, et al. 2002 and Chuang, et al. 2011 examine the factors that influence organizational adoption of antidiscrimination policies and same-sex health benefits. In recent years, the concept of heteronormativity has been used to understand the experiences of LGBTQ employees as well as the normalization of heterosexuality in organizations (see Priola, et al. 2018). Ng and Rumens 2017 and Byington, et al. 2020 provide comprehensive literature reviews of trends and future research in sexual orientation diversity.

• Byington, Eliza K., Georg F. B. Tamm, and Raymond N. C. Trau. “Mapping Sexual Orientation Research in Management: A Review and Research Agenda.” Human Resource Management (2020): OnlineFirst.

  DOI: 10.1002/hrm.22026Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This is the first integrative review to trace sexual orientation research within the management field over a twenty-three-year period.

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• Chuang, You-Ta, Robin Church, and Ron Ophir. “Taking Sides: The Interactive Influences of Institutional Mechanisms on the Adoption of Same-Sex Partner Health Benefits by Fortune 500 Corporations, 1990–2003.” Organization Science 22.1 (2011): 190–209.

  DOI: 10.1287/orsc.1090.0521Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An excellent longitudinal, empirical study of the factors that influence the decision by Fortune 500 organizations to adopt same-sex partner health benefits.

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• Colgan, Fiona, and Nick Rumens, eds. Sexual Orientation at Work: Contemporary Issues and Perspectives. New York: Routledge, 2015.

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  Composed of fifteen chapters that provide international empirical and theoretical insights on sexual orientation in the workplace and its implications for LGBTQ employees and managers.

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• Creed, W. E. Douglas, Maureen A. Scully, and John R. Austin. “Clothes Make the Person? The Tailoring of Legitimating Accounts and the Social Construction of Identity.” Organization Science 13.5 (2002): 475–496.

  DOI: 10.1287/orsc.13.5.475.7814Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A sophisticated analysis of how the combination of legitimating accounts and social identity influences policies precluding discrimination against LGBTQ individuals.

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• Gregory, Michele Rene. “The Faggot Clause: The Embodiment of Homophobia in the Corporate Locker Room.” Equality, Diversity and Inclusion 30.8 (2011): 651–667.

  DOI: 10.1108/02610151111183180Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A revealing ethnographic examination of homophobia narratives in corporate settings.

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• Ng, Eddy S., and Nick Rumens. “Diversity and Inclusion for LGBT Workers: Current Issues and New Horizons for Research.” In Special Issue: Special Issue on LGBT in the Workplace. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences/Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l’Administration 34.2 (2017): 109–120.

  DOI: 10.1002/cjas.1443Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Critically traces the trends in research on LGBT workers over a thirty-year period.

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• Priola, Vincenza, Diego Lasio, Franceso Serri, and Silvia de Simone. “The Organisation of Sexuality and the Sexuality of Organisation: A Genealogical Analysis of Sexual ‘Inclusive Exclusion’ at Work.” Organization 25.6 (2018): 732–754.

  DOI: 10.1177/1350508418790140Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Examines sexual inclusion in the workplace by theorizing the social and historical processes that underpin heteronormativity in organizations.

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• Ragins, Belle Rose. “Pink Triangles: Antecedents and Consequences of Perceived Workplace Discrimination against Gay and Lesbian Employees.” Journal of Applied Psychology 86.6 (2001): 1244–1261.

  DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.86.6.1244Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A frequently cited article on the relationship between perceived sexual orientation discrimination, negative work attitudes, and upward mobility of gay and lesbian employees.

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  • Medline

Physical Ability

Research focused on employees with disabilities in the workplace increased in response to the passage of the Americans with Disability Act in 1990 in the United States. Similar legislation in other countries has also contributed to the growth in research on disabilities in the workplace. While this is a smaller body of research than that on other categories of diversity, it has primarily centered on the discrimination experiences of disabled employees and the attitudes individuals and organizations hold toward these employees. The authors of Stone and Colella 1996 develop a model of the factors affecting the treatment of persons with disabilities in organizations. Stigmatization has been a popular theory used by scholars to explain coworkers’ reactions to employees with disabilities. The authors of Stone-Romero, et al. 2006 develop a model to demonstrate the differences in how persons with disabilities versus persons without disabilities construe a work task. Recently, management scholars have moved from a medical and purely physical model of disability to a social model that recognizes the social construction of the lived experiences of “disabled” employees (Sang, et al. 2016; Santuzzi and Waltz 2016). Dobusch 2017 examines how the meaning of disability is constructed through diversity management practices. For a road map for future directions on the stigmatization of disabled, see Follmer, et al. 2020.

• Dobusch, Laura. “Gender, Dis‐/ability and Diversity Management: Unequal Dynamics of Inclusion?” In Special Issue: Critical Diversity, Philosophy & Praxis. Gender, Work & Organization 24.5 (2017): 487–505.

  DOI: 10.1111/gwao.12159Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An empirical examination of how gender and dis‐/ability are shaped and co-constituted by practices labeled as diversity management.

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• Follmer, Kayla B., Isaac Emmanuel Sabat, and Rose L. Siuta. “Disclosure of Stigmatized Identities at Work: An Interdisciplinary Review and Agenda for Future Research.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 41.2 (2020): 169–184.

  DOI: 10.1002/job.2402Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The authors provide a comprehensive review of the extant literature on stigmatized identifies.

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• McLaughlin, Mary E., Myrtle P. Bell, and Donna Y. Stringer. “Stigma and Acceptance of Persons with Disabilities.” Group & Organization Management 29.3 (2004): 302–333.

  DOI: 10.1177/1059601103257410Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The authors find that stigma largely mediated the relationship between disability type and acceptance.

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• Sang, Katherine J., James Richards, and Abigail Marks. “Gender and Disability in Male‐Dominated Occupations: A Social Relational Model.” Gender, Work & Organization 23.6 (2016): 566–581.

  DOI: 10.1111/gwao.12143Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The paper explores the lived experiences with disability of men and women working in a sector traditionally dominated by men.

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• Santuzzi, Alecia M. and Pamela R. Waltz. “Disability in the Workplace: A Unique and Variable Identity.” Journal of Management 42.5 (2016): 1111–1135.

  DOI: 10.1177/0149206315626269Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The authors provide a broader conceptualization of disability from an interdisciplinary lens.

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• Stone, Dianna L., and Adrienne Colella. “A Model of Factors Affecting the Treatment of Disabled Individuals in Organizations.” Academy of Management Review 21.2 (1996): 351–401.

  DOI: 10.5465/amr.1996.9605060216Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A seminal theoretical article that identifies the key factors affecting the treatment of employees with disabilities in the workplace.

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• Stone-Romero, Eugene F., Dianna L. Stone, and K. Lukaszewski. “The Influence of Disability on Role-Taking in Organizations.” In The Handbook of Workplace Diversity. Edited by Alison M. Konrad, Pushkala Prasad, and Judith K. Pringle, 401–430. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2006.

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  An interesting discussion of the work-related scripts of persons with disabilities compared to those of persons without disabilities.

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Age

Attention to age diversity has lagged in respect to other dimensions. However, the aging of the baby boomer generation has spurred interest in understanding age diversity and its implications for organizations. The research on age diversity falls into two primary areas: age discrimination and intergenerational differences in the workplace. In terms of the latter, most of the research documents age discrimination and its effects (Kunze, et al. 2011; Shore and Goldberg 2005). Parry and McCarthy 2017 offers a comprehensive examination of the workplace issues arising from age diversity. The literature on intergenerational diversity focuses on demonstrating how worldviews and workplace preferences differ among employees born in different historical and social periods (Cogin 2011). For a recent overview of intergenerational tensions in the workplace, see Lloyd-Jones and Worley 2018.

• Cogin, Julie. “Are Generational Differences in Work Values Fact or Fiction? Multi-country Evidence and Implications.” International Journal of Human Resource Management 23.11 (2011): 2268–2294.

  DOI: 10.1080/09585192.2011.610967Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An examination of multigenerational differences across five nations. This article addresses age bias from a broader theoretical framework grounded in the literature on bias in general.

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• Kunze, Florian, Stephan A. Boehm, and Heike Bruch. “Age Diversity, Age Discrimination Climate and Performance Consequences: A Cross Organizational Study.” In Special Issue: Contemporary Empirical Advancements in the Study of Aging in the Workplace. Journal of Organizational Behavior 32.2 (2011): 264–290.

  DOI: 10.1002/job.698Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An empirical study of the emergence of perceived age discrimination climate on the company level and its performance consequences.

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• Lloyd-Jones, Brenda and Jody A. Worley. “Intergenerational Tensions in the Workforce.” In Diversity in the Workforce: Current Issues and Emerging Trends. Edited by Marilyn Y. Byrd and Chaunda Scott, 190–213. New York: Routledge, 2018.

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  This chapter provides an overview of intergenerational tensions in the workplace.

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• Parry, Emma, and Jean McCarthy, eds. The Palgrave Handbook of Age Diversity and Work. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.

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  A comprehensive compendium of research on age diversity in the workplace.

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• Shore, Lynn M., and Caren Goldberg. “Age Discrimination in the Workplace.” In Discrimination at Work: The Psychological and Organizational Bases. Edited by Robert L. Dipboye and Adrienne Colella, 197–220. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005.

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  A thorough literature review on the research on age discrimination.

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Work Team

Work team diversity is defined as the degree to which there are demographic and individual differences among group members; this has become a significant area of study within the diversity literature. Jackson, et al. 1995 laid the foundation for the landscape of diversity in work teams in a framework for understanding its effects. Milliken and Martins 1996 underscores the observation that the composition of organizational groups affects outcomes such as turnover and performance through its impact on affective, cognitive, and symbolic processes. Pelled, et al. 1999 explores work-group diversity and conflict; Earley and Mosakowski 2000 examines the effects of diversity on transnational team functioning. Since these publications, the literature on work team diversity has grown substantially and constitutes a large part of the extant knowledge on diversity. Although it is clear that work team diversity may affect group process and performance positively as well as negatively, much is still unclear about the effects of diversity and the circumstances under which different effects emerge. However, Chatman 2010 provides an analysis of the effects of norms in mixed sex and mixed race groups. Several reviews over the years have led to a call for greater attention to context and multilevel research. For example, Joshi and Roh 2009 stresses the importance of context. Jackson and Joshi 2010 calls for multilevel theoretical perspectives and methodologies to shed light on the complexity of diversity in work teams. For a recent review, see van Knippenberg and Mell 2016.

• Chatman, Jennifer A, “Norms in Mixed Sex and Mixed Race Work Groups.” Academy of Management Annals 4.1 (2010): 447–484.

  DOI: 10.5465/19416520.2010.494826Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Provides a review of the literature on norms and the psychology of prejudice to hypothesize the benefits and challenges of mixed sex and race work groups.

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• Earley, P. Christopher, and Elaine Mosakowski. “Creating Hybrid Team Cultures: An Empirical Test of Transnational Team Functioning.” Academy of Management Journal 43.1 (2000): 26–29.

  DOI: 10.2307/1556384Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Examines the emergence and effects of hybrid team cultures in transnational work teams.

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• Jackson, Susan E., and Aparna Joshi. “Work Team Diversity.” In APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Vol. 1, Building and Developing the Organization. Edited by Sheldon Zedeck, 651–686. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2010.

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  An excellent, balanced summary of the definition, process elements, and effects of work team diversity as well as prescriptions for future research, from two of the top researchers in the field.

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• Jackson, Susan E., Karen E. May, and Kristina Whitney. “Understanding the Dynamics of Diversity in Decision-Making Teams.” In Team Effectiveness and Decision-Making in Organizations. Edited by Richard A. Guzzo and Eduardo Salas, 204–261. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995.

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  In this foundational work, the authors develop a framework for specifically focusing on diversity in work teams.

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• Joshi, Aparna, and Hyuntak Roh. “The Role of Context in Work Team Diversity Research: A Meta-analytic Review.” Academy of Management Journal 52.3 (2009): 599–628.

  DOI: 10.5465/AMJ.2009.41331491Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This article provides a meta-analysis of published research on work team to identify the role of context in explaining the effects of diversity.

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• Milliken, Frances J., and Luis L. Martins. “Searching for Common Threads: Understanding the Multiple Effects of Diversity in Organizational Groups.” Academy of Management Review 21.2 (1996): 402–433.

  DOI: 10.5465/amr.1996.9605060217Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  This has been referred to as the most-cited article on diversity. The authors summarize the literature on diversity and organizational groups to identify common themes.

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• Pelled, Lisa Hope, Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, and Katherine R. Xin. “Exploring the Black Box: An Analysis of Work Group Diversity, Conflict and Performance.” Administrative Science Quarterly 44 (1999): 1–28.

  DOI: 10.2307/2667029Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The authors test an integrative model of the relationships among diversity, conflict, and group performance. They found diversity drives task conflict, but multiple types of diversity affect emotional conflict.

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• van Knippenberg, Daan, and Julija N. Mell. “Past, Present, and Potential Future of Team Diversity Research: From Compositional Diversity to Emergent Diversity.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 136 (2016): 135–145.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2016.05.007Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A critical review of research on team diversity that identifies the trajectory of the field and future theoretical implications.

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Nationality

The rather large and expansive volume of research on national culture diversity focuses on understanding how cultural differences among nations affect organizations, ranging from effects on doing business to the appropriateness of management and leadership practices. Early research critiqued the assumption of the universality of management knowledge and practices. The seminal research was conducted by Gert Hofstede, with the most recent scholarly account published in Hofstede 2001. The trajectory of national cultural diversity scholarship has followed a path of first delineating models of how national cultures differ. Examples include the frameworks in Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1998 and, more recently, House, et al. 2004. There are also a few important critiques of the various frameworks, including Alion 2008. Other significant works (Adler 2008) offer theoretical and practical information about understanding and responding to national culture differences. Micro-level examination of the effects of national culture in the workplace can be found in publications like Smith and Best 2009, a four-volume set on cross-cultural psychology. For early theoretical reviews of the concept of cultural diversity and cultural intelligence, sees Earley and Ang 2003 and Ang and van Dyne 2008, respectively. Seymen 2006 provides a review of the literature on how to manage cultural diversity in the workplace.

• Adler, Nancy J. International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior. 5th ed. Mason, OH: Thomson/South-Western, 2008.

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  A popular book that provides a thorough treatment of national culture and how it affects organizational behavior on several dimensions.

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• Alion, G. “Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: Culture’s Consequences in a Value Test of Its Own Design.” Academy of Management Review 33.4 (2008): 885–904.

  DOI: 10.5465/AMR.2008.34421995Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Provides an insightful critical reading of Hofstede’s national culture framework.

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• Ang, Soon, and Linn van Dyne. Handbook on Cultural Intelligence: Theory, Measurement and Applications. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2008.

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  A comprehensive volume on the concept and its measurement and use.

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• Earley, P. Christopher, and Soon Ang. Cultural Intelligence: Individual Interactions across Cultures. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003.

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  A thorough introduction to the concept of cultural intelligence.

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• Hofstede, Geert H. Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations across Nations. 2d ed. Thousand Oaks, CA SAGE, 2001.

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  This book showcases and details his highly cited, expansive seminal research on national culture differences.

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• House, Robert J., Paul J. Hanges, Mansour Javidan, Peter W. Dorfman, and Vipin Gupta, eds. Leadership, Culture, and Organizations: The Globe Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2004.

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  Offers an expanded, empirically based framework for national culture and its implications for leadership based on a sample of sixty-two nations around the world.

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• Seymen, Oya A. “The Cultural Diversity Phenomenon in Organisations and Different Approaches for Effective Cultural Diversity Management: A Literary Review.” Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal 13.4 (2006): 296–315.

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  A review of the effective management of cultural diversity in organizations.

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• Smith, Peter, and Deborah L. Best. Cross-Cultural Psychology. 4 vols. London: SAGE, 2009.

  DOI: 10.4135/9781446261309Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  A comprehensive critical overview of the latest developments in the nascent field of cross-cultural psychology at the individual, developmental, and societal levels.

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• Trompenaars, Alfons, and Charles Hampden-Turner. Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business. 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998.

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  The book contains perhaps the second most-cited national culture framework. It provides in-depth knowledge on cross-cultural skills for managers.

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