Global and Comparative Leadership

by

Mary Ann Von Glinow, William D. Schneper

• LAST REVIEWED: 20 January 2023
• LAST MODIFIED: 30 November 2015
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199846740-0051

Traditional Leadership Theories

While the writings covering traditional leadership theories are quite expansive, the portion most commonly drawn upon by global leadership is comparatively modest. The general leadership framework that has been applied most frequently to global research theory is Bernard Bass’s distinction between transformational and transactional leadership. We include two of his earliest published formulations of these concepts: Bass 1985 and Bass 1990. Implicit leadership theory served as an important theoretical inspiration for the project on Global Leadership, Organizational Behavior and Effectiveness (GLOBE), one of the global leadership field’s most important research initiatives. Therefore, we next include the seminal book on implicit leadership theory (Lord and Maher 1991). A large portion of global leadership research has also sought to identify the individual traits and attributes associated with leadership success: Zaccaro 2007 offers a review of leadership literature’s long history with trait-based research. While research on global leadership has often neglected the power-based approach, the concepts of power and leadership remain inescapably linked. Kotter 1985, a classic book, is an introduction to the power-based perspective on leadership for its analysis on how the critical sources of power and influence within business organizations have shifted over time. Zaleznik 1977, an article in Harvard Business Review, is also included for its famous explanation about the differences between managers and leaders. We conclude with reviews in Mendenhall 2008 and Hollenbeck 2009 that include assessments of how traditional leadership research has influenced writings on global leadership.

• Bass, Bernard M. Leadership and Performance beyond Expectations. New York: Free Press, 1985.

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  Famous for its detailed comparison of transactional versus transformational leadership. Bass’s theories were inspired by James MacGregor Burns’s earlier description of transforming and transactional leadership (see Burns’s 1978 book Leadership, published by Harper).

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• Bass, Bernard M. “From Transactional to Transformational Leadership: Learning to Share the Vision.” Organizational Dynamics 18.3 (Winter 1990): 19–31.

  DOI: 10.1016/0090-2616(90)90061-SSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Offers further elaboration on transactional versus transformational leadership. “Transactional” leadership relies on managing by exception (taking corrective action when certain rules or standards are not met) and offering some agreed-upon reward for a fixed amount of work. “Transformational” leaders provide a strong sense of purpose, promote creativity, and set high standards, which they expect to be surpassed.

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• Hollenbeck, George P. “A Serendipitous Sojourn through the Global Leadership Literature.” In Advances in Global Leadership. Vol. 2. Edited by William H. Mobley and Morgan W. McCall Jr., 15–47. Bingley, UK: Emerald, 2009.

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  Originally published in 2001. An engaging essay reviewing the global leadership literature, including its connections to traditional leadership research; Hollenbeck points out how global leadership was shaped by prior scholarly inquiries related to questions about strategy, cross-cultural differences, expatriates, competencies, leadership, and adult learning. Another good starting point for those new to the field.

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• Kotter, John P. Power and Influence: Beyond Formal Authority. New York: Free Press, 1985.

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  Written for a general audience, but well cited in the leadership literature. Kotter argues that the exercise of power has become increasingly important for individual and organizational success. At the same time, formal sources of power and authority have become less effective. Therefore, individuals must increasingly rely on “unofficial” sources of power such as social capital and leadership skills. Kotter’s advice is both insightful and builds on prior research on the bases and sources of power, such as the classic “Bases of Social Power,” by John French and Bertram Raven, in Studies in Social Power, edited by Dorwin Cartwright (Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1959), pp. 150–167.

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• Lord, Robert G., and Karen J. Maher. Leadership and Information Processing: Linking Perceptions and Performance. People and Organizations 1. Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1991.

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  Best known for its formulation of implicit leadership theory, the idea that individuals hold informal beliefs, schemas, and stereotypes about how leaders ought to behave and what attributes they will possess. Successful leadership requires conformity with the follower’s implicit assumptions. This theory was one of the main theoretical building blocks for the GLOBE Project, as well as other international business scholars interested in how leadership archetypes compare across countries.

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• Mendenhall, Mark E. “Leadership and the Birth of Global Leadership.” In Global Leadership: Research, Practice, and Development. Edited by Mark E. Mendenhall, Joyce S. Osland, Allan Bird, Gary R. Oddou, and Martha L. Maznevski, 1–17. Routledge Global Human Resource Management. London and New York: Routledge, 2008.

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  A concise yet informative review of the traditional leadership literature. Following Yukl 2013 (cited under Textbooks), Mendenhall divides traditional leadership research into five approaches (trait, behavior, situational, power-influence, and integrative) and comments on their relative impact on global leadership.

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• Zaccaro, Stephen J. “Trait-Based Perspectives of Leadership.” American Psychologist 62.1 (January 2007): 6–16.

  DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.62.1.6Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The study of whether various personal traits and attributes contribute to effective leadership has had, in Zaccaro’s words, “a long but checkered history” (p. 6). This review provides an introduction to the trait-based tradition in leadership research.

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• Zaleznik, Abraham. “Managers and Leaders: Are They Different?” Harvard Business Review 15 (May–June 1977): 67–78.

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  Describes the respective roles of managers and leaders in stark contrast. Successful organizations require both managers and leaders. By definition, managers occupy a formal position within the administrative hierarchy, but leaders can emerge from anywhere within the organization. Despite these important distinctions, most leadership research (including international work) continues to focus on the persons fulfilling formal management roles.

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Globalization

Sociologist and international business scholar Mauro Guillén (Guillén 2001) defines globalization as “a process leading to greater interdependence and mutual awareness (reflexivity) among economic, political, and social units in the world, and among actors in general” (p. 235). Some observers suggest the growing tendency among researchers to use the term “global” rather than “international” or “cross-national” signifies a shift in perceived importance away from nation-states and toward the world as a whole. The books and articles listed in this section explore the implications of globalization, including the threats and opportunities posed to business managers and leaders. Levitt 1983 was one of the first articles that advised business managers on how to respond to globalization. Vernon 2001 provides an early account on how multinational enterprises are helping to bring about globalization. Friedman 2007 describes how the nature of globalization has changed over time. Both Guillén 2001 and Osland 2003 offer broad-based reviews of the globalization literature. Both Rhinesmith 1996 and Ghemawat 2011 bridge the gap between globalization and global leadership, by offering prescriptive advice to managers. Ghemawat 2011 is also noteworthy for challenging many widely held beliefs on globalization.

• Friedman, Thomas L. The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century. New York: Picador, 2007.

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  Popular best seller by Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist; Friedman describes how global integration is bringing about a more level economic playing field, which benefits previously disadvantaged countries such as India and China. Identifies key factors that have served as “world flatteners,” including advances in computers and telecommunications; suggests how managers and workers should respond to this new form of globalization.

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• Ghemawat, Pankaj. “The Cosmopolitan Corporation.” Harvard Business Review 89.5 (May 2011): 92–99.

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  Arguing the world is not as globalized as commonly presumed, Ghemawat recommends that international managers must embrace cross-national differences. Provides advice on how to develop global leaders through the use of assessment instruments, international assignments, and participation in cross-country projects; advocates using conceptual models such as Ghemawat’s own CAGE (Cultural, Administrative, Geographic, Economic) framework to improve understanding about national differences.

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• Guillén, Mauro F. “Is Globalization Civilizing, Destructive or Feeble? A Critique of Five Key Debates in the Social Science Literature.” Annual Review of Sociology 27.1 (2001): 235–260.

  DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.235Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Highly influential review of the globalization literature; Guillén applies Hirschman’s three-category framework on market economies for evaluating the extent to which globalization is beneficial or harmful, as well as the degree to which the effects of globalization are being felt by various societal groups. This paper is frequently noted for its discussion on whether globalization is contributing to a convergence of practices and ideologies across countries.

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• Levitt, Theodore. “The Globalization of Markets.” Harvard Business Review (May–June 1983): 92–102.

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  Famous article that helped popularize the term “globalization.” Argues that firms must seek out opportunities and develop standardized products and services suitable for a global audience. Many of the Levitt’s assertions remain as audacious and provocative today as when they were written. Nationalist practices, for instance, are described as “the last violent death rattle of an obsolete institution” (p. 101).

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• Osland, Joyce S. “Broadening the Debate: The Pros and Cons of Globalization.” Journal of Management Inquiry 12.2 (2003): 137–154.

  DOI: 10.1177/1056492603012002005Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Another well-cited review of the globalization literature, this one places emphasis on the multinational firm’s relationship with governments, labor, and society.

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• Rhinesmith, Stephen H. A Manager’s Guide to Globalization: Six Skills for Success in a Changing World. 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.

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  Originally published in 1992 and targeted to a broad audience, this book remains highly cited in the scholarly literature on global leadership. Rhinesmith argues that personal and organizational success in the global environment requires the ability to manage competitiveness, complexity, organizational alignment, organizational change, multicultural teams, and learning.

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• Vernon, Raymond. Sovereignty at Bay: The Multinational Spread of U.S. Enterprises. London: Routledge, 2001.

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  One of the earliest international business classics, originally published in 1971 (New York: Basic Books); ten years after its initial publication, the author lamented that most of it readers remember the title but not its contents. Suggests that the flexibility multinational firms enjoy in being able to transfer activities across national borders has brought about a fundamental shift in power away from nation-states and toward large corporations.

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Challenges Specific to Multinational Companies

While the consequences of globalization affect both domestic and multinational firms, there are certain challenges largely unique to firms operating internationally. One of the first of these challenges to receive systematic scholarly attention was the need for expatriate employees to adjust to a new country and societal culture.

Applications of Traditional Leadership Theories

As previously discussed, Bass’s transformational/transactional paradigm has been applied more often in research on comparative and global leadership than has probably any other traditional leadership theory. Both Bass 1997 and Jung, et al. 1995 discuss the prospects for the framework’s generalizability across countries. Chen and Fahr 2001 and Kirkman, et al. 2009 serve as laudable examples taken from the large number of quantitative studies that have applied transformational and transactional leadership concepts on a cross-country or comparative basis. Some other traditional leadership theories have also begun to gain relatively more attention. Holmberg and Åkerblom 2006 is a fine empirical study using Global Leadership, Organizational Behavior and Effectiveness (GLOBE) Project data that also provides an excellent discussion of the conceptual link between that project and implicit leadership theory. Bledow, et al. 2011 reflects the growing interest both in strategy and leadership research about how some managers switch effectively between seemingly contradictory leadership styles, depending on organizational and environmental contingencies.

• Bass, Bernard M. “Does the Transactional-Transformational Leadership Paradigm Transcend Organizational and National Boundaries?” American Psychologist 52.2 (1997): 130–139.

  DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.52.2.130Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Reviews the literature on the transactional versus transformational leadership framework, arguing there is strong empirical evidence for its broad applicability across countries. The specific ways that transformational and transactional leadership styles are expressed may differ, however, due to cultural and organizational factors.

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• Bledow, Ronald, Michael Frese, and Verena Mueller. “Ambidextrous Leadership for Innovation: The Influence of Culture.” In Advances in Global Leadership. Vol. 6. Edited by William H. Mobley, Ming Li, and Ying Wang, 41–69. Bingley, UK: Emerald, 2011.

  DOI: 10.1108/S1535-1203(2011)0000006006Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  The concept of ambidextrous leadership suggests that managers should adjust their leadership style depending on whether the timing and context are appropriate to encourage or discourage certain behaviors. Extending this idea to global leadership, the authors offer guidance on when leaders of innovation processes ought to promote or suppress the cultural tendencies of various countries.

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• Chen, Xiao-Ping, and Jiing-Lih Fahr. “Transformational and Transactional Leader Behaviors in Chinese Organizations: Differential Effects in the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan.” In Advances in Global Leadership. Vol. 2. Edited by William H. Mobley and Morgan W. McCall Jr., 101–126. Bingley, UK: Emerald, 2001.

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  Finds that transformational leadership behaviors have a greater positive influence on various organizational outcomes than transactional behaviors, both in China and Taiwan. However, the specific transformational and transactional behaviors found to be significant were different between the two countries, suggesting that neither transactional nor transformational leadership should be viewed as a uniform set of behaviors that can be deployed identically across countries.

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• Holmberg, Ingalill, and Staffan Åkerblom. “Modelling Leadership—Implicit Leadership Theories in Sweden.” Scandinavian Journal of Management 22.4 (December 2006): 307–329.

  DOI: 10.1016/j.scaman.2006.10.002Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Interesting application of implicit leadership theory, comparing attitudes of Swedish middle managers with those of their counterparts in sixty-one other countries. Important leadership qualities in Sweden included those that were nearly universally endorsed across countries as well as others that were more distinctive. “Self protective” was found to be a distinctive factor presumed to inhibit good leadership.

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• Jung, Dong I., Bernard M. Bass, and John J. Sosik. “Bridging Leadership and Culture: A Theoretical Consideration of Transformational Leadership and Collectivistic Cultures.” Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies 2.4 (1995): 3–18.

  DOI: 10.1177/107179199500200402Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Conceptual article suggesting that transformational leadership is consistent with the values and beliefs of collectivist societies, even though the theoretical framework was first developed in the individualist United States.

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• Kirkman, Bradley J., Gilad Chen, Jiing-Lih Fahr, Zhen Xiong Chen, and Kevin B. Lowe. “Individual Power Distance Orientation and Follower Reactions to Transformational Leaders: A Cross-Level, Cross-Cultural Examination.” Academy of Management Journal 52.4 (2009): 744–764.

  DOI: 10.5465/AMJ.2009.43669971Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Well-constructed empirical study exploring the relationship between employee-level power distance orientation, group-level perceptions of transformational leadership, procedural justice perceptions, and organizational citizenship behavior. The model was tested both in China and the United States, with no significant differences in findings.

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Developing Global Leaders and Ensuring Effectiveness

Books and articles on the development and effectiveness of global leadership compose the largest portion of the literature. Since this topic also enjoys a large popular audience, many managers and consultants have authored insightful works in this area. However, the sheer number of publications can make it difficult to separate the wheat from the chaff. We concentrate below mostly on publications directed toward academic researchers, but also include some other titles frequently cited in the scholarly literature. While not strictly an application of formal traditional leadership theories, much work in the area follows the trait or behavioral tradition (see Zaccaro 2007, cited under Traditional Leadership Theories), where scholars attempt to uncover the traits, attributes, competencies, behaviors, and practices contributing to effective global leadership. Osland 2008 provides an extensive discussion on prior research, focusing on global leadership traits. Yeung and Ready 1995 provides an early empirical study aimed at identifying preferred leadership characteristics across several countries. Both Spreitzer, et al. 1997 and Roth 1995 provide quantitative tests exploring connections between leadership characteristics and various performance outcomes. We conclude this section with four conceptual works that have made a significant impact on managers and on researchers in global leadership alike. Adler and Bartholomew 1992 offers guidance on how human resource management can contribute to global leadership and corporate-level strategy. Bartlett and Ghoshal 1992 provides a convincing case against trying to identify a single group of attributes that are appropriate for all global managers regardless of their role within the firm. McCall and Hollenbeck 2002 provides advice to executives, based on extensive interviews across a large number of countries. Kanter 1997, helped conceptualize the concept of cosmopolitanism, which has frequently been identified as an important global leadership attribute.

• Adler, Nancy J., and Susan Bartholomew. “Managing Globally Competent People.” Academy of Management Executive 6.3 (August 1992): 52–65.

  DOI: 10.5465/AME.1992.4274189Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Frequently cited conceptual paper arguing that the human resource management strategies of many transnational firms are not sufficiently global; offers suggestions on how to modify practices and systems of human resource management to provide a better fit with business strategy. Recruitment, retention, formal training, and the composition of top management teams are among the topics addressed.

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• Bartlett, Christopher A., and Sumantra Ghoshal. “What Is a Global Manager?” Harvard Business Review 70.5 (September–October 1992): 124–132.

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  Classic practitioner-oriented article arguing there is no single type of global manager. The skill sets required to be a successful business manager, country manager, or functional manager all are dramatically different. The corporate manager must act as a leader who develops, guides, and motivates these other groups.

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• Kanter, Rosabeth Moss. World Class: Thriving Locally in the Global Economy. New York: Touchstone, 1997.

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  Targeted to a broad audience, but frequently cited by researchers in global leadership. Well known for its distinction between “cosmopolitan” and “local” worldviews, Kanter’s book provides recommendations both for business executives and community leaders on how to respond to globalization.

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• McCall, Morgan W., Jr., and George P. Hollenbeck. Developing Global Executives: The Lessons of International Experience. Boston: Harvard Business School, 2002.

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  Highly recommended for students, practitioners, and researchers, this engaging book draws on a study of 101 executives across 36 countries and 16 firms. Provides rich detail of the expatriate experience.

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• Osland, Joyce S. “An Overview of the Global Leadership Literature.” In Global Leadership: Research, Practice, and Development. Edited by Mark E. Mendenhall, Joyce S. Osland, Allan Bird, Gary R. Oddou, and Martha L. Maznevski, 34–63. Routledge Global Human Resource Management. London and New York: Routledge, 2008.

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  An excellent review of the overall literature on global leadership, with emphasis placed on competencies. Drawing on an earlier unpublished paper with Mark Mendenhall, Osland identifies fifty-six global leadership, competencies along six categories (cross-cultural relationship skills, traits, global business expertise, global organizing expertise, cognitive orientation, and visioning) that have been proposed in the literature.

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• Roth, Kendall. “Managing International Interdependence: CEO Characteristics in a Resource-Based Framework.” Academy of Management Journal 38.1 (February 1995): 200–231.

  DOI: 10.2307/256733Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Empirical study proposing that the degree of a firm’s international interdependence helps determine which CEO characteristics are most critical for organizational success. CEO characteristics explored include locus of control, international experience, and information evaluation style.

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• Spreitzer, Gretchen M., Morgan W. McCall Jr., and Joan D. Mahoney. “Early Identification of International Executive Potential.” Journal of Applied Psychology 82.1 (1997): 6–29.

  DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.82.1.6Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Well-crafted empirical study that develops a fourteen-category instrument used to predict the performance of managers in international assignments; the instrument’s validity is tested based on the current performance of managers from six multinational firms across twenty-one countries.

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• Yeung, Arthur K., and Douglas A. Ready. “Developing Leadership Capabilities of Global Corporations: A Comparative Study in Eight Nations.” Human Resource Management 34.4 (1995): 529–547.

  DOI: 10.1002/hrm.3930340405Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  One of the first empirical studies to explore leadership competencies on a cross-country, comparative basis; the authors identify six leadership capabilities valued across all countries studied. They further suggest that the relative importance of these factors differs across countries, due to cultural differences.

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Global Mindset

Javidan and Teagarden 2011 defines “global mindset as an individual’s ability to influence individuals, groups, organizations, and systems that are unlike him or her or his or her own” (p. 14). While this concept could be regarded as just one of the many potentially important leadership competencies, the body of work on global mindset is so large and central to the field of global leadership that it is often treated as a separate research area. Researchers have investigated the impact of global mindset on more types of practices, strategies, and outcomes in multinational firms than any other cognitive dimension. The idea of global mindset—along with the inspiration for many of the earliest writings on global leadership—can be traced back to Perlmutter 1969, a classic article on ethnocentric, polycentric, and geocentric cultural attitudes. Perlmutter later supplemented this model by adding a fourth category called regiocentric, which was one the acknowledgements in the literature that regional geographic clusters constitute an important unit of analysis for research on international business and global leadership. Kobrin 1994 helped draw attention to Perlmutter’s framework among quantitative researchers by including the results of one of the first empirical tests on geocentric mindset. The encyclopedia article Schneper and von Glinow 2013 discusses the connection between Perlmutter’s ideas and the more recent research on global mindset. Levy, et al. 2007 and Javidan and Teagarden 2011 provide reviews emphasizing different aspects of research on global mindset. Bartlett and Ghoshal 2008, a seminal book on “the transnational solution,” offers a strategic management perspective on global mindset. The authors argue that business success at the worldwide level depends even more on fostering the correct managerial mindset than on formal organizational structure or management control systems. Murtha, et al. 1998 develops a survey instrument and includes the results of an empirical test that built on Bartlett and Ghoshal’s work. We conclude this section with information on the Global Mindset Inventory assessment instruments offered by Global Mindset Institute at the Thunderbird School of Global Management.

• Bartlett, Christopher A., and Sumantra Ghoshal. Managing across Borders: The Transnational Solution. 2d ed. Boston: Harvard Business School, 2008.

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  Hugely influential book, originally published in 1989, exploring the importance of multinational managerial mindset from a global strategy perspective. Within Bartlett and Ghoshal’s parlance, the “transnational” mentality supplants Perlmutter’s geocentricism as the ideal worldview for global leaders. The authors argue that organizational success at the global level requires that firms must balance conflicting needs for local responsiveness and worldwide efficiency.

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• Global Mindset Inventory.

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  Developed by the Global Mindset Institute at the Thunderbird School of Global Management, this instrument is designed to measure three types of capital associated with global mindset (intellectual, psychological, social). Both peer-based assessments and self-assessments are available; the institute provides representative (but not actual) questions associated with each form of capital on its website.

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• Javidan, Mansour, and Mary B. Teagarden. “Conceptualizing and Measuring Global Mindset.” In Advances in Global Leadership. Vol. 6. Edited by William H. Mobley, Ming Li, and Ying Wang, 13–39. Bingley, UK: Emerald, 2011.

  DOI: 10.1108/S1535-1203(2011)0000006005Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Another expert review of research on global mindset, this one focusing on the various ways the construct has been operationalized and used in empirical tests.

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• Kobrin, Stephen J. “Is There a Relationship between a Geocentric Mind-Set and Multinational Strategy?” Journal of International Business Studies 25.3 (1994): 493–511.

  DOI: 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490209Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  One of the first empirical studies using Perlmutter’s notion of geocentric managerial mindset. The paper helped promote the legitimacy of Perlmutter’s framework and foster interest in multinational managerial mindsets among academics, as quantitative research methods increasingly came to dominate international management research.

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• Levy, Orly, Schon Beechler, Sully Taylor, and Nakiye A. Boyaçigiller. “What We Talk About When We Talk About ‘Global Mindset’: Managerial Cognition in Multinational Corporations.” Journal of International Business Studies 38.2 (March 2007): 231–258.

  DOI: 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400265Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Detailed review of the literature on global mindset, from cultural, strategic, and multidimensional perspectives. Two constructs (cosmopolitanism and cognitive complexity) are argued as underlying global mindset.

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• Murtha, Thomas P., Stefanie Ann Lenway, and Richard P. Bagozzi. “Global Mind-Sets and Cognitive Shift in a Complex Multinational Corporation.” Strategic Management Journal 19.2 (February 1998): 97–114.

  DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199802)19:2%3C97::AID-SMJ943%3E3.0.CO;2-2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Proposes and validates a survey instrument used to measure global mindset, based on integration, responsiveness, and country coordination expectations. The authors’ treatment of global mindset draws heavily on Bartlett and Ghoshal’s strategic management approach rather than on more-cultural and psychological treatments.

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• Perlmutter, Howard V. “The Tortuous Evolution of the Multinational Corporation.” Columbia Journal of World Business 4.1 (January–February 1969): 9–18.

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  Landmark article that has made an enduring impact on several strands of international business research, including international human resource management, global strategy, and global leadership; proposed that that multinational firms could be categorized based on the cultural attitudes (worldviews) of their top executives. Perlmutter proposed that three fundamental worldviews (ethnocentric, polycentric, geocentric) represented a progression observable within many multinational firms.

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• Schneper, William D., and Mary Ann von Glinow. “Cultural Attitudes in Multinational Corporations.” In Encyclopedia of Management Theory. Edited by Eric H. Kessler, 173–176. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2013.

  DOI: 10.4135/9781452276090Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Discusses the relationship between Perlmutter’s original theoretical framework and more recent research on managerial mindset; explores cultural and strategic approaches to the study of global mindset.

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Gender and Global Leadership

While certain reviews of leadership research (including this one) begin by spotlighting a litany of famous male leaders, it is important to note that several of history’s most prominent political, spiritual, and business leaders have been women. Despite the accomplishments of Indra Nooyi, Meg Whitman, Anita Roddick, Margaret Thatcher, Hillary Rodham Clinton, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Mother Teresa, to name just a few, leadership research has focused more frequently on men (see discussions in Adler 1997, Adler 1998, and Adler 2002). The papers described below examine the relationship between gender and global leadership. We spotlight the work of Nancy Adler, since she has been the most influential contributor to this topic. In addition, Ngunjiri and Madsen 2015 is an exemplary edited volume on women and global leadership, covering a variety of topics and issues. Paris, et al. 2009 examines differences in the preferred leadership styles of male and female leaders, across a large country sample.

• Adler, Nancy J. “Global Leadership: Women Leaders.” Management International Review 37.1 (1997): 171–196.

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  Highly cited article that has been reprinted in several edited volumes. Adler documents the increasing number of women who became global business leaders from the 1950s into the 1990s. She argues that this trend is occurring at the same time that certain skills and values associated with femininity (including empathy, interpersonal sensitivity, nurturance, and an emphasis on cooperation and egalitarianism) have become widely viewed as elements of preferred global leadership style.

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• Adler, Nancy J. “Did You Hear? Global Leadership in Charity’s World.” Journal of Management Inquiry 7.2 (1998): 135–143.

  DOI: 10.1177/105649269872008Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Powerful essay examining Charity Ngilu, the first women to run for president in Kenya. (She was ultimately defeated.) Adler discusses Ngilu’s career, leadership style, and rise to prominence, finding parallels with women leaders in the global business world.

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• Adler, Nancy J. “Global Managers: No Longer Men Alone.” International Journal of Human Resource Management 13.5 (2002): 743–760.

  DOI: 10.1080/09585190210125895Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Explores the reasons global firms give for selecting female managers compared to the reasons offered for selecting their male counterparts. Adler argues that organizational expectations of women managers depend on the degree to which the firm values diversity and whether decision makers believe men and women possess different yet complementary managerial and leadership competencies.

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• Ngunjiri, Faith Wambura, and Susan R. Madsen, eds. Women as Global Leaders. Charlotte, NC: Information Age, 2015.

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  Interesting collection of new articles on women as global leaders; contains two fine introductory articles, one by Nancy Adler and the other by Joyce Osland; the topic of women as global leaders is explored from a variety of theoretical lenses, including cultural intelligence and authentic leadership. Considerable attention is also placed on strategies for developing women as global leaders. The final section includes stories and cases on several female leaders and public personalities.

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• Paris, Lori D., Jon P. Howell, Peter W. Dorfman, and Paul J. Hanges. “Preferred Leadership Prototypes of Male and Female Leaders in 27 Countries.” Journal of International Business Studies 40.8 (October–November 2009): 1396–1405.

  DOI: 10.1057/jibs.2008.114Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Interesting cross-country study that finds that women leaders are more likely to prefer charismatic, participative, and team-oriented leadership approaches. No significant differences were found between male and female preferences for humane orientation. The researchers observed some country-level differences, but industry variation was even greater.

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Corporate Social Responsibility, Ethics, and Global Leadership

Increased attention to corporate social responsibility has been an important trend in many areas of business research, and global leadership is no exception. The literature on corporate social responsibility and global leadership shares some similarities, in that both fields have traditionally been dominated by conceptual and prescriptive treatises. Given these considerations and especially the limited availability of data on cross-country corporate social responsibility, the two papers identified in this section are particularly admirable. Waldman, et al. 2006 seeks to identify which leadership characteristics are related to corporate social responsibility across countries. Euwema, et al. 2007 confines its attention to within the firm, by examining how leadership styles of managers influence the organizational citizenship behavior of their subordinates. Pless, et al. 2011 examines the relationship between service learning and global leadership.

• Euwema, Martin C., Hein Wendt, and Hetty van Emmerik. “Leadership Styles and Group Organizational Citizenship Behavior across Cultures.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 28.8 (2007): 1035–1057.

  DOI: 10.1002/job.496Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Utilizes data both from GLOBE and Geert Hofstede, along with an impressive data set measuring leadership styles (supportive versus directive) and organizational citizenship behavior of 20,336 managers and 95,893 group members across 33 countries. The researchers find no direct relationship between national culture and group organizational citizenship behavior (GOCB) but discover that individualism and power distance moderated the relationship between leadership style and GOCP.

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• Pless, Nicola M., Thomas Maak, and Günter K. Stahl. “Developing Responsible Global Leaders through International Service Learning Programs: The Ulysses Experiences.” Academy of Management Learning & Education 10.2 (2011): 237–260.

  DOI: 10.5465/AMLE.2011.62798932Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Chronicles the results of a service-learning program that placed teams into developing countries to work with social entrepreneurs, NGOs, or other international organizations. Content analysis of the interviews of seventy participants suggests learning in six areas: (1) responsible mindset, (2) ethical literacy, (3) cultural intelligence, (4) global mindset, (5) self-development, and (6) community building.

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• Waldman, David A., Mary Sully de Luque, Nathan Washburn, Robert J. House, et al. “Cultural and Leadership Predictors of Corporate Social Responsibility Values of Top Management: A GLOBE Study of 15 Countries.” Journal of International Business Studies 37.6 (2006): 823–837.

  DOI: 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400230Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  National cultural values of institutional collectivism and power distance were found to be positively associated with values of corporate social responsibility among top managers. At the managerial level, visionary leadership and integrity had a similarly positive impact. The authors argue that corporate social responsibility is a multidimensional construct involving concern for shareholders, stakeholders, and the state, but that organizational leaders differ in their level of commitment to these various groups.

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Large-Scale Comparative Studies

Geert Hofstede’s work on national cultural dimensions values and the project on Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) can be rightfully labeled as the “big two” large-scale, cross-country international business initiatives. Their impact on global leadership and, more generally, international management has been enormous. Among their many theoretical and practical implications, these studies have provided insights on the degree to which leadership styles and practices are transferrable across countries. The main elements of Hofstede’s theory and approach are detailed in his two seminal books, discussed below (Hofstede 1980, Hofstede 1991). The theoretical foundations and initial findings of the GLOBE Project are discussed in House, et al. 2004, titled Culture, Leadership, and Organizations. House, et al. 2002; and Gupta, et al. 2002 are journal articles addressing different aspects of GLOBE research. Chhokar, et al. 2007 is the second major book produced by GLOBE. This work complements the project’s early quantitative emphasis, with greater use of qualitative methods including structured interviews. Given the prominence both of Hofstede’s research and the GLOBE Project, it shouldn’t be surprising that both initiatives have faced considerable criticism, especially for their methodological limitations. Smith 2006 provides insightful commentary on these critiques. The World Values Survey is another major large-scale comparative study. This initiative has traditionally had less of an impact on global leadership research, perhaps due to its emphasis on general rather than work-related values. However, its influence in international management appears to be growing, as evidenced by its recent incorporation in Hofstede’s research on cultural dimensions.

• Chhokar, Jagdeep S., Felix C. Brodbeck, and Robert J. House, eds. Culture and Leadership across the World: The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies. Lea’s Organization and Management Series. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2007.

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  This is the second book produced directly as a result of GLOBE. By focusing on a smaller group of countries and societies, this effort provides a more detailed examination (including extensive qualitative research) of individual cultures and serves to validate GLOBE’s earlier cultural indices and empirical findings.

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• Gupta, Vipin, Paul J. Hanges, and Peter Dorfman. “Cultural Clusters: Methodology and Findings.” Journal of World Business 37.1 (2002): 11–15.

  DOI: 10.1016/S1090-9516(01)00070-0Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  An article detailing early GLOBE findings and focusing on the identification of the ten cultural clusters: Anglo cultures, Latin Europe, Nordic Europe, Germanic Europe, eastern Europe, Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Arab cultures, South Asia, and Confucian Asia.

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• Hofstede, Geert H. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Cross-Cultural Research and Methodology 5. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE, 1980.

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  Describe’s Hofstede’s four original cultural indices of work-related values: power distance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, and uncertainty avoidance. A fifth dimension, called long-term orientation, was added in 1991, based on additional research conducted by Michael Bond. Despite various ongoing methodological criticisms, Hofstede’s measures are still widely used by scholars of global leadership and international business.

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• Hofstede, Geert H. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. London and New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.

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  While covering much of the same ground as Hofstede 1980, this book devotes more attention to the management and leadership implications of Hofstede’s famous measures. The 2010 edition uses research by Michael Minkov and data from the World Values Survey to extend cultural values scores to ninety-three countries and to add a sixth dimension, labeled indulgence versus restraint.

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• House, Robert J., Paul J. Hanges, Mansour Javidan, Peter W. Dorfman, and Vipin Gupta. Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2004.

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  Landmark book describing the development of a pool of 753 questionnaire items used across organizations in 62 societies to identify 9 cultural dimensions. One of the most important findings reported in the book is the identification of twenty-one “first order” factors and subscales thought to be characteristic of various leadership styles across the world (see Table 8.4 on p. 131).

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• House, Robert, Mansour Javidan, Paul Hanges, and Peter Dorfman. “Understanding Cultures and Implicit Leadership Theories across the Globe: An Introduction to Project GLOBE.” Journal of World Business 37.1 (2002): 3–10.

  DOI: 10.1016/S1090-9516(01)00069-4Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Compared to the rather imposing 818 pages that compose House, et al. 2004, this article offers a more gentle and succinct introduction to GLOBE’s central concepts and findings. Similar to other GLOBE publications, the article proposes that certain leadership attributes are either universally endorsed or condemned, whereas the favorability of others is culturally contingent.

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• Smith, Peter B. “When Elephants Fight, the Grass Gets Trampled: The GLOBE and Hofstede Projects.” Journal of International Business Studies 37.6 (2006): 915–921.

  DOI: 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400235Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

  Balanced account of the methodological concerns most frequently raised both about Hofstede’s cultural values and GLOBE research. Smith discusses the pros and cons of each framework, in a thoughtful manner, and cautions against an overreliance on either approach.

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• World Values Survey.

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  The World Values Survey (WVS) has compiled survey data on values dating back to 1981, with information now covering ninety-seven countries. Data are available for download or online analysis via the WVS homepage. The website also provides links to several research publications that have used data on world values.

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Single-Country and Region-Specific Studies

Single-country and smaller-scale cross-country comparative studies are another important part of research on global leadership. These studies can assist in what Thomas Kuhn termed “normal science” by validating and extending established theories (see p. 10 of his 1962 book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: University of Chicago Press). They can also provide new insights on whether specific leadership principles are universal or culturally contingent, as well as on the difficulties leaders face when confronting unfamiliar countries. In rare instances, this research might help generate new theories or assist in the identification of leadership styles not easily evident in settings such as the United States—for example, the promising work on Asian paternalism in Redding 1993 and in other works cited under Asia and the Pacific Rim. While the references included in this section are generally not considered by most experts on global leadership to be core readings in their field, they are nonetheless part of an essential and often-fascinating area of global leadership. This section offers a broad sampling of single-country and regional research in the Americas, Asia, Europe, and Africa and the Middle East.