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Introduction

Job satisfaction occupies a central position in organizational research. It has been studied as an independent, dependent, mediator, and moderator variable and has been found to be related to a host of organizational and personal outcomes such as absenteeism, turnover, organizational citizenship behaviors, organizational commitment, mood, life satisfaction, and subjective well-being. The importance of job satisfaction in organizational studies has been described as the “holy grail” of industrial organizational research and has been equated to “g” or general intelligence in psychological research. Job satisfaction remains one of the most widely discussed and studied constructs in industrial-organizational psychology, organizational behavior, and human resource management. In view of the broad interest in job satisfaction and its importance in organizational studies, this article aims to produce a guide to job satisfaction research by introducing readers to the various major streams of research that have been conducted on this topic. The purpose here is to inform readers about the theoretical construct of job satisfaction, specifically how it has been defined, measured, and studied. In particular, this article will introduce two major ways in which job satisfaction has been defined: as a job-related attitude and a job-related affect. This article will then follow with several dominant models of job satisfaction that have continued to shape the field. A major part of this article discusses how job satisfaction has been measured and what the implications of different measurement instruments are. Lastly, this article will introduce readers to the known antecedents and consequences of job satisfaction. Understanding how job satisfaction has been defined, measured, and studied is of utmost importance because a large proportion of extant research has revolved around understanding what job satisfaction is, and the field continues to debate the best ways to measure it and its relationships with other organizationally relevant variables. With the above objective in mind, this article will be a useful guide to researchers of job satisfaction and help elucidate some of the ongoing debates and controversies surrounding its research.

General Overviews

Most research on job satisfaction is published in academic journals as articles. There also exist a number of important book chapters that advance the field of research on job satisfaction. A selection of these journal articles and book chapters can also be found here. This particular section highlights several important books on job satisfaction. Some of these books, such as Hoppock 1935, are considered as “classics” on the topic of job satisfaction, while others offer comprehensive introductions and reviews of various topics in job satisfaction research (Cranny, et al. 1992 and Spector 1997). For a novice researcher, these books will be a good introduction to job satisfaction research and offer a broad overview of what job satisfaction is and how it has been operationalized and studied in management research. A seasoned researcher will find these books useful and thought provoking in summarizing the current state of knowledge in job satisfaction research.

Cranny, C. J., P. C. Smith, and E. F. Stone. Job Satisfaction: How People Feel About Their Jobs and How It Affects Their Performance. New York: Maxwell Macmillan International, 1992.
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Provides a comprehensive introduction to the major research areas in job satisfaction. It covers topics such as the definition of job satisfaction, antecedents, and consequences of job satisfaction and offers suggestions on new research areas that advance the field of job satisfaction research.
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Hoppock, R. Job Satisfaction. New York and London: Harper, 1935.
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Considered one of the “classics” of job satisfaction research. Uses a case-study approach to examine why people are dissatisfied with their jobs.
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Spector, P. E. Job Satisfaction: Application, Assessment, Causes, and Consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1997.
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A readable introductory book on job satisfaction. Offers a quick introduction and summary of major topics of job satisfaction research. Suitable for a novice researcher.
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Defining Job Satisfaction

While researchers have generally agreed on the theoretical approaches to study job satisfaction, there are no broad consensuses on its meaning. The seminal Locke 1976 (cited under Theoretical Approaches: Interactive Approach: Value-Percept Model of Satisfaction) defined job satisfaction as a “pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from an appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (Locke 1976). Others, however, have suggested that job satisfaction, is an individual’s cognitive evaluation of his/her job components (e.g., Hackman and Oldham 1980 (cited under Job Characteristics Model), or when there is a match between job rewards and individuals’ job-related goals and values (e.g., Smith, et al. 1969 [cited under Facet-Based Measures]). The lack of consensus on what job satisfaction is has led to Fisher 2000 and Weiss 2002 (both cited under Defining Job Satisfaction: Critiques of the Job Satisfaction Construct) to call for greater clarification of the nature of the job satisfaction construct and what it means when employees say they are satisfied with their job. Others, such as Judge and Larsen 2001 (cited under Reviews of Job Satisfaction Research), however, believe that while it is useful to study affective and cognitive components of job satisfaction, bifurcating job satisfaction into a specific affectively laden or cognitively laden construct add little to the current state of knowledge. In order to provide a broad sense of the ongoing discussion on the nature of job satisfaction, this article presents selected articles from each of the above positions.

Job Satisfaction as Job-Related Affect

Although job satisfaction was widely regarded by early researchers as a job-related affect, there was not much theoretical support on how job-related affect was derived and sustained. Using Hoffman and Solomon’s opponent process theory, Landy 1978 argued that changes in job-related affect follow a regular pattern, which is a primary process that involves excitement arising from an encountering stimulus and an opponent process that inhibits the level of stimulation. Landy 1978 proposed the idea of “environmental stimulus” at work that leads to affective responses toward job satisfaction and “reinforcers” that lead to decay of affective responses

Landy, F. J. “An Opponent Process Theory of Job Satisfaction.” Journal of Applied Psychology 63.5 (1978): 533–547.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.63.5.533 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
One of the first articles that presented a theoretical framework to explain how job-related affect (i.e., job satisfaction) is derived. Used the opponent process theory of job satisfaction to better explain the processes of affective arousal, maintenance, and decay job related emotional states.
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Job Satisfaction as Job-Related Attitudes

Instead of defining and examining job satisfaction as a pure cognitive or affective construct, some researchers have suggested that job satisfaction is an attitude that comprises both affective and cognitive components. Hulin and Judge 2003 provides an in-depth discussion on how job satisfaction is similar to and different from other forms of social attitudes. Judge and Kammeyer-Mueller 2012 broadly reviewed research that supports the arguments that job satisfaction is a form of job attitudes and closely examined how job attitudes are related to organizational outcomes.

Hulin, C. L., and T. A. Judge. “Job Attitudes.” In Handbook of Psychology. Vol. 12, Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Edited by W. C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen, R. J. Klimoski, and I. B. Weiner, 255–276. New York: Wiley, 2003.
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This is an important article that discusses similarities and differences between social attitudes and job satisfaction.
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Judge, T. A., and Kammeyer-Mueller. “Job Attitudes.” Annual Review of Psychology 63.3 (2012): 341–367.
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100511 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
An important article that addresses and clarifies the nature of job attitudes (i.e., job satisfaction and organizational commitment) and reviewed major research conducted in these areas.
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Critiques of the Job Satisfaction Construct

There is no current consensus on how job satisfaction should be defined. This lack of consensus has been criticized by Weiss and Cropanzano 1996, Fisher 2000, and Weiss 2002. They believe that the lack of consensus has muddled and confounded the construct of job satisfaction and greater clarity on what job satisfaction is will help advance the current state of research.

Fisher, C. D. “Mood and Emotions while Working: Missing Pieces of Job Satisfaction?” Journal of Organizational Behavior 21 (2000): 185–202.
DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200003)21:2<185::AID-JOB34>3.0.CO;2-M Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Despite job satisfaction being described often in affective terms, most measures of job satisfaction are more cognitive than affective in nature. Using experience sampling, the author found that job-related affect was related to but was different from cognitive measurement of job satisfaction facets. The author, therefore, calls for greater clarity on how job satisfaction is defined and operationalized in field research
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Weiss, H. M. “Deconstructing Job Satisfaction: Separating Evaluations, Beliefs and Affective Experiences.” Human Resource Management Review 12 (2002): 173–194.
DOI: 10.1016/S1053-4822(02)00045-1 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The author argues that extant research on job satisfaction does not draw a distinction between it being an affect and a work-related attitude. This has obscured three distinct but related aspects of job satisfaction: (1) cognitive evaluation of jobs, (2) beliefs of jobs, and (3) affective experiences on jobs. The author highlights several problems arising from the lack of definitional distinction and argues that job satisfaction is not an affective evaluation of one’s job but rather is an attitude that one holds toward one’s job.
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Weiss, H. M., and R. Cropanzano. “Affective Events Theory: A Theoretical Discussion of the Structure, Causes and Consequences of Affective Experiences at Work.” Research in Organizational Behavior 18 (1996): 1–74.
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The authors argue that the commonly accepted notion of job satisfaction being a job-related affect is both theoretically and empirically problematic. They conduct an extensive review of studies that examine job-related affect and conclude that job-related affective reactions are distinctively different from job satisfaction.
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Theoretical Approaches

There are four general theoretical approaches to study job satisfaction: the Cognitive Judgment Approach, the Dispositional Approach, the Interactive Approach, and the Social Information Processing Approach.

Cognitive Judgment Approach

The cognitive judgment approach has long dominated the theoretical landscape of job satisfaction. The cognitive judgment approach is represented generally by two different research perspectives: discrepancy theory perspective and job characteristics perspective.

Discrepancy Theory

The discrepancy theory perspective suggests the work environment is represented by some concrete or abstract features. Satisfaction occurs when employees perceive that there are discrepancies between these features embedded in their job and what they want from their job. The discrepancy theory perspective is best represented by Dawis and Lofquist 1984. Bizot and Goldman 1993 and Bretz and Judge 1994 are studies that utilized Dawis and Loquist’s theory of work adjustment to examine how job satisfaction occurs at work.

Bizot, E. B., and S. H. Goldman. “Prediction of Satisfactoriness and Satisfaction: An 8-year Follow-up.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 43 (1993): 19–29.
DOI: 10.1006/jvbe.1993.1027 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The study tested four propositions of the theory of work adjustment by using a longitudinal design. The authors found that the propositions put forth by the theory of work adjustment were generally supported, with predictions of satisfaction being weaker than predictions of satisfactoriness.
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Bretz, R. D., and T. A. Judge. “Person-Organization Fit and Theory of Work Adjustment: Implications for Satisfaction, Tenure, and Career Success.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 44 (1994): 32–54.
DOI: 10.1006/jvbe.1994.1003 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
A well-cited study that extended research on theory of work adjustment and satisfaction by examining how Person-Organizational fit results in satisfaction and tenure. Found that Person-Organization fit has a direct impact on career success (salary level and job level): factor that theory of work adjustment assume to predict job satisfaction.
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Dawis, R. V., and L. H. Lofquist. A Psychological Theory of Work Adjustment: An Individual-Differences Model and its Application. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984.
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Based on the theory of work adjustment, individuals and the environment must meet each others’ requirements in order for work to take place. The degree to which individuals and their environment meet is called “correspondence.” Work adjustment is the process of achieving and maintaining correspondence. Satisfactoriness and satisfaction indicate the degree to which work adjustment has taken place. Satisfactoriness is the function of individuals’ abilities and ability requirements of the work environment. Satisfaction, on the other hand, is an internal indicator representing individuals’ appraisal of the extent to which their work environment fulfil their personal requirements.
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Job Characteristics Model

The job characteristics model suggests that job satisfaction is derived from employees’ evaluation of their job conditions, work environment, or from the nature of their job. Hackman and Oldham 1980 is an exemplar of this approach. In their study, Loher, et al. 1985 found that the model is largely supported by empirical data.

Hackman, J. R., and G. R. Oldham. Work Redesign. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980.
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The authors argued that job satisfaction depends on the characteristics of work. When employees work on jobs that possess five core job characteristics (i.e., task identity, task significance, skill variety, autonomy, feedback), they will experience work as meaningful, experience personal responsibility, and feedback on their job performance. When all five job characteristics are present, employees will experience high work motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.
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Loher, B. T., R. A. Noe, N. L. Moeller, and M. P. Fitzgerald. “A Meta-analysis of the Relation of Job Characteristics to Job Satisfaction.” Journal of Applied Psychology 70.2 (1985): 280–289.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.70.2.280 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors conducted a meta-analysis to investigate the relationship between job characteristics and job satisfaction. Using data pooled from twenty-eight studies, they found that job characteristics (task identity, task significance, skill variety, autonomy, feedback) were moderately related to job satisfaction at correlational levels approximately between .32 (task identity) to .46 (autonomy). They also found that these relationships were moderated by growth need strength.
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Dispositional Approach

The dispositional approach argues that there are relatively stable individual factors that predisposed employees to feelings of job satisfaction, independent of work or environment situations. Some commonly studied dispositional variables include biological factors, personality, and trait affectivity.

Genetics and Other Biological Determinants of Job Satisfaction

Research on genetic causes of job satisfaction started in the 1980s with Staw, et al. 1986 being the first to propose that there are stable individual factors that affect job satisfaction. Building on Staw, et al. 1986, Arvey, et al. 1989 adopted a novel approach to study how genes and their interactions with the environment affect job satisfaction. This line of inquiry is not without its critics. Cropanzano and James 1990 criticized the approach used by Arvey, et al. 1989. In response, Bouchard, et al. 1992 made a clarification on the methodologies that were used and responded to their criticisms. Similar to Cropanzano and James 1990, Gerhart 1987 and Steel and Rentsch 1997 also question the findings and methodologies used in studying genetic influence of job satisfaction. Despite their critiques, Cropanzano and James 1990, Gerhart 1987, and Steel and Rentsch 1997 largely agree that genetic factors do indeed influence job satisfaction. Instead of studying how genes broadly influence job satisfaction, some scholars such as Song, et al. 2011 have examined how specific genes in the human genome are related to job satisfaction.

Arvey, R. D., T. J. Bouchard, N. L. Segal, and L. M. Abraham. “Job Satisfaction: Environmental and Genetic Components.” Journal of Applied Psychology 74 (1989): 187–192.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.74.2.187 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
This is the first study to use twin data to examination biological disposition in job satisfaction. Using thirty-four pairs of monozygotic twins reared apart from early childhood, the authors found that approximately 30 percent of the variance in job satisfaction can be accounted for by genetics factors and that job satisfaction is partially heritable.
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Bouchard, T. J., R. D. Arvey, L. M. Keller, and N. L. Segal. “Genetic Influences on Job Satisfaction: A Reply to Cropanzano and James.” Journal of Applied Psychology 77.1 (1992): 89–93.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.77.1.89 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors provided a detailed response to criticisms made by Cropanzano and James 1990 on their earlier study (Arvey, et al. 1989). Carefully dealt with issues brought up by Cropanzano and James 1990 by elaborating on the context surrounding the authors’ original study and by reviewing studies conducted on human behavioral genetics research. Concluded that while Cropanzano and James 1990 had brought up many important questions, they ultimately disagreed with Cropanzano and James’s assertion that the conclusions drawn in their original article are hasty.
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Cropanzano, R., and K. James. “Some Methodological Considerations for the Behavioral Genetic Analysis of Work Attitudes.” Journal of Applied Psychology 75.4 (1990): 433–439.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.75.4.433 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
This study highlighted methodological and validity deficiency of using monozygotic twins in studying heritability of work attitudes such as job satisfaction. Despite raising their concerns about the methods used by Arvey, et al. 1989, they believe that there are indeed genetic influences on job satisfaction; however, in view of the methodological problems, they estimated the heritability of job satisfaction is likely to be smaller than 30 percent as previously reported by Arvey, et al. 1989.
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Gerhart, B. “How Important are Dispositional Factors as Determinants of Job Satisfaction? Implications for Job Design and Other Personnel Programs.” Journal of Applied Psychology 72.3 (1987): 366–373.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.72.3.366 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The author criticized the methods employed by Staw and Ross 1985 and questioned the validity of their conclusion. Attempted to replicate Staw and Ross 1985 by rectifying their methodological flaws. Found that situational factors (job complexity) continue to have influence on satisfaction and concluded that personnel programs (job design) will not be constrained by attitudinal consistency (genetic dispositional).
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Song, Z., W. Li, and R. D. Arvey. “Associations between Dopamine and Serotonin Genes and Job Satisfaction: Preliminary Evidence from the Add Health Study.” Journal of Applied Psychology 96.6 (2011): 1223–1233.
DOI: 10.1037/a0024577 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors examined how genetic markers are associated with job satisfaction. Using a sample from National Adolescent Longitudinal Study (Add Health Survey), they found that Dopamine receptor gene (DRD4 VNTR) and Serotonin transporter gene 5-HTTLPR to be weakly but significantly related to job satisfaction.
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Staw, B. M., N. E. Bell, and J. A. Clausen. “The Dispositional Approach to Job Attitudes: A Lifetime Longitudinal Test.” Administrative Science Quarterly 31 (1986): 56–77.
DOI: 10.2307/2392766 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that affective disposition assessed at age twelve to fourteen moderately correlated with job satisfaction at age fifty-four to sixty-two. These results provided evidence that job satisfaction is somewhat influenced by dispositional factors.
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Staw, B. M., and J. Ross. “Stability in the Midst of Change: A Dispositional Approach to Job Attitudes.” Journal of Applied Psychology 70 (1985): 469–480.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.70.3.469 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Using the National Longitudinal Surveys (NLS) database, they found that job satisfaction was reasonably stable over time and that job satisfaction showed modest stability even when individuals changed both employers and occupations. Furthermore, they also found that prior job satisfaction was a stronger predictor of current satisfaction than changes in pay or job status. The results provided evidence that dispositional factors can influence individuals’ job attitudes and concluded that situational factors and changes have limited impact on individual’s job satisfaction.
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Steel, R. P., and Rentsch. “The Dispositional Model of Job Attitudes Revisited: Findings from a 10-year Study.” Journal of Applied Psychology 82.6 (1997): 873–879.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.873 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that there is significant stability in job satisfaction over a ten-year period, yet job characteristics explain incremental variances in job satisfaction after accounting for variance due stability of satisfaction: measured by mean difference between Time 1 and Time 2. Concluded that although job satisfaction is relatively stable, it can be affected by job design. Thus, job satisfaction is a function of both dispositional and situational factors.
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Personality

Two major personality systems (i.e., Big Five and Core Self-Evaluation) are thought to be related to job satisfaction. Judge, et al. 2002 meta-analyzed how variables in the Big Five system are related to job satisfaction. In a similar vein, Judge and Bono 2001 conducted a meta-analysis on the relationship between Core Self-Evaluation and job satisfaction. In a comparative study, Judge, et al. 2008 compares how Big 5, Core Self-Evaluation, and affect are differentially related to job satisfaction.

Judge, T. A., and J. E. Bono. “Relationship of Core Self-evaluation Traits: Self-esteem, Generalized Self-efficacy, Locus of Control, and Emotional Stability with Job Satisfaction and Job Performance: A Meta-analysis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 86.1 (2001): 80–92.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors conducted a meta-analysis on the relationship between core self-evaluation traits and job satisfaction. Found that the corrected correlation between core self-evaluation traits range from .24 to .45. When the four meta-analyses were combined into a single composite measure, the overall core trait correlated .37 with job satisfaction. Concluded that Core Self-Evaluation may be an important dispositional trait that influences job satisfaction.
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Judge, T. A., D. Heller, and R. Klinger. “The Dispositional Sources of Job Satisfaction: A Comparative Test.” Applied Psychology: An International Review 57.3 (2008): 361–372.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00318.x Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors tested how three personality taxonomies (positive and negative affect, Big Five, Core Self-Evaluation) commonly studied in job satisfaction research are related to satisfaction in an integrative model. In a longitudinal study, they found that all three personality topologies were significantly related to job satisfaction. However, when examined concurrently in an integrative model, only Core Self-Evaluation was significantly related to satisfaction. Concluded that Core Self-Evaluation is an important dispositional predictor of job satisfaction.
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Judge, T. A., D. Heller, and M. K. Mount. “Five-Factor Model of Personality and Job Satisfaction: A Meta-analysis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 87.3 (2002): 530–541.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.3.530 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The study classified 335 correlations between personality traits and job satisfaction reported in 135 studies into categories corresponding to the Big Five traits and found that true-score correlations of each Big Five trait to job satisfaction were between 0.2 to .29. Though the Big Five traits vary in their relevance to job satisfaction, the study concluded there is substantial support for the dispositional source of job satisfaction.
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Trait Affectivity

Trait affectivity refers to an individuals’ predisposition tendency to experience certain emotional states. This disposition is thought to have a stable influence on individuals’ experiences of job satisfaction. Weitz 1952 and Judge 1993 investigate how individuals’ tendency to feel negative affect influences their degree of job satisfaction and their intentions to quit their job. Besides having a direct influence on job satisfaction, trait affectivity is likely to interact with other factors to predict job satisfaction. Brief, et al. 1995 investigates how trait affectivity and its interaction with environmental stimuli influence job satisfaction. Similarly, Ilies and Judge 2003 and Judge and Hulin 1993 examine how trait affectivity mediated the influence of between dispositional factors and subjective well-being on job satisfaction. To find the true-score correlation between trait affectivity and job satisfaction, Connolly and Viswesvaran 2000 conducts a meta-analysis and both positive and negative trait affectivity to be moderately related to job satisfaction.

Brief, A. P., A. H. Butcher, and L. Roberson. “Cookies, Disposition, and Job Attitudes: The Effects of Positive Mood-inducing Events and Negative Affectivity on Job Satisfaction in a Field Experiment.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 62.1 (1995): 55–62.
DOI: 10.1006/obhd.1995.1030 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that negative affect, a predisposition tendency to experience adverse emotional states, was negatively associated with job satisfaction. However, exposure to positive mood-inducing events increased job satisfaction, and the effect of positive mood on job satisfaction was relatively weaker among employees with high NA. They found that the interaction between negative affect and positive stimuli predicted job satisfaction and concluded that individuals with high NA have lower sensitivity to environmental stimuli that may positively influence job satisfaction.
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Connolly, J. J., and C. Viswesvaran. “The Role of Affectivity in Job Satisfaction: A Meta-analysis.” Personality and Individual Differences 29.2 (2000): 265–281.
DOI: 10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00192-0 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that the true-score correlation between PA and NA and job satisfaction was .49 and −.33 respectively and job satisfaction had a true-score correlation of .36 with affective disposition.
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Ilies, R., and T. A. Judge. “On the Heritability of Job Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Personality.” Journal of Applied Psychology 88.4 (2003): 750–759.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.750 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors argued that research on heritability of job satisfaction provided only an indirect explanation of for the dispositional source of job satisfaction. Suggested that the relationship between genetic influence on job satisfaction is mediated by two dispositional frameworks—the five-factor model and positive affectivity–negative affectivity (PA–NA). They found that PA and NA mediated about 45 percent of the genetic influences on job satisfaction, whereas the five-factor model mediated approximately 24 percent of these genetic effects.
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Judge, T. A. “Does Affective Disposition Moderate the Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Voluntary Turnover?” Journal of Applied Psychology 78.3 (1993): 395–401.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.78.3.395 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Based on Weitz 1952 and its “gripe index,” the author argued that individuals who were more negatively disposed toward life were more likely to view job dissatisfaction as another dissatisfying facet of their life and thus were less likely to quit, as they did not expect that changing jobs would result in higher satisfaction. Individuals who had a positive outlook on life, however, were more likely to quit because they saw changing job as a viable means to correct a dissatisfying aspect of their life.
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Judge, T. A., and C. Hulin. “Job Satisfaction as a Reflection of Disposition: A Multiple Source Causal Analysis.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 56 (1993): 388–421.
DOI: 10.1006/obhd.1993.1061 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The study highlighted some problems associated with dispositional approaches of job satisfaction and tested a causal model of the relationship between affective disposition, subjective well-being, and job satisfaction. The study found that affective disposition influences one’s subjective well-being, and in turn, subject well-being had a reciprocal relationship with job satisfaction.
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Watson, D., and K. Slack. “General Factors of Affective Temperament and their Relation to Job Satisfaction Over Time.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 (1993): 181–202.
DOI: 10.1006/obhd.1993.1009 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that trait affectivity was a stable predictor of job satisfaction, both at the present moment and over a period of two years.
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Weitz, J. “A Neglected Concept in the Study of Job Satisfaction.” Personnel Psychology 5 (1952): 201–205.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1952.tb01012.x Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The author argued that some individuals are more predisposed than others to be dissatisfied with facets of their life and job. Hypothesized that those with more “gripe” in life were less likely to quit their job even though they might be highly dissatisfied with it. He proposed using a “gripe index” to assess a person’s predisposition to be dissatisfied. He found that the “gripe index” was correlated with job satisfaction at .39.
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Interactive Approach

The interactive approach assumes that job satisfaction is a function of the interaction between employees and their work situations.

Value-Percept Model of Satisfaction

Locke 1976 is one of the most influential articles on job satisfaction. Locke 1976 introduced the value-percept model of job satisfaction and identified work events, work conditions, and work agents as major drivers or facets of satisfaction.

Locke, E. A. “The nature and causes of job satisfaction.” In Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Edited by M. D. Dunnette, 1297–1349. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.
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The author proposed that job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from an appraisal of one’s job or job experiences. Suggested that job satisfaction has both affective and cognitive components and identified eight major drivers of job satisfaction. Argued that job satisfaction is an automatic subconscious affective appraisal of job facets and the interaction between job facet importance and affect-free perceptions of each job facet.
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Cornell Model

The Cornell model by Smith, et al. 1969 and Hulin 1991 examined how job satisfaction is a function between employees’ perceived effort and rewards they received. The Cornell model gave rise to two important measurement instruments: the Job Descriptive Index (JDI), one of the most widely used measures of job satisfaction, and the Retirement Descriptive Index (RDI).

Hulin, C. L. “Adaptation, Persistence, and Commitment in Organizations.” In Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. 2d ed. Vol. 2. Edited by M. D. Dunnette and L. M. Hugh, 445–505. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists, 1991.
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The author modified the original Cornell model by incorporating the input-outcome model of job attitude in March and Simon (1958), thereby taking into account how individuals’ frame of reference are generated and how such frame of reference can be used to explain why job satisfaction levels differ among individuals who hold objectively similar jobs.
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Smith, P. C., L. M. Kendall, and C. L. Hulin. Measurement of Satisfaction in Work and Retirement. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969.
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First developed by Smith, et al. in 1969 and further extended by Hulin 1991. The model suggested that job satisfaction is a function of the balance between an individual’s role contributions (i.e., how much time, effort, and experience they invested into work and role outcomes, i.e., how much pay and promotion they received from work. It identifies pay, promotion, supervision, coworkers, and work itself as major facets of job satisfaction. Introduced the importance of “frame of reference” in when assessing individuals’ evaluation of their job satisfaction levels.
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Individual/Environment Interaction

Numerous studies had examined how job satisfaction arises from the interactions between employees and their work environment. Rice, et al. 1991 examines the propositions of Locke 1976 that job facet importance interacts with employees’ affect-free perceptions of their work components to determine job satisfaction. Others such as Ferris, et al. 2013; Judge, et al. 2000; and Li, et al. 2010 investigate how personality interacted with work conditions to determine job satisfaction. Organ and Greene 1974, on the other hand, studies the relationship between work characteristics and locus of control in predicting job satisfaction.

Ferris, D. L., R. E. Johnson, C. C. Rosen, E. Djurdjevic, C. H. Chang, and J. A. Tan. “When Is Success Not Satisfying? Integrating Regulatory Focus and Approach/Avoidance Motivation Theories to Explain the Relation Between Core Self-Evaluation and Job Satisfaction.” Journal of Applied Psychology 98.2 (2013): 342–353.
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The authors found that workplace success and avoidance motivation orientation interacts to mediate the relationship between Core Self-Evaluation and job satisfaction.
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Judge, T. A., J. E. Bono, and E. A. Locke. “Personality and Job Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Job Characteristics.” Journal of Applied Psychology 85.2 (2000): 237–249.
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The author presented two studies that generally supported that the effect of Core Self-Evaluation on job satisfaction was mediated by job characteristics. In the second study, Core Self-Evaluation measured in childhood/early adulthood was related to job satisfaction during middle adulthood, and this relationship was partially mediated by job complexity.
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Li, N., J. Liang, and J. M. Crant. “The Role of Proactive Personality in Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Relational Perspective.” Journal of Applied Psychology 95.2 (2010): 395–404.
DOI: 10.1037/a0018079 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors argued that proactivity is related to job satisfaction because proactive individuals were more likely to create workplace conditions conducive to work. This relationship was mediated by leader-member exchange and moderated by procedural justice climate.
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Organ, D. W., and C. N. Greene. “The Perceived Purposefulness of Job Behavior: Antecedents and Consequences.” Academy of Management Journal 17.1 (1974): 69–78.
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Past research found a moderate negative relationship between role ambiguity and job satisfaction. This relationship is peculiar since many jobs thought to be desirable and satisfying (e.g., managerial roles) involve a certain degree of role ambiguity. The authors found that locus of control and perceived purposefulness of job behavior help to reduce the equivocality of role ambiguity, leading to greater job satisfaction.
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Rice, R. W., D. A. Gentile, and D. B. McFarlin. “Facet Importance and Job Satisfaction.” Journal of Applied Psychology 76.1 (1991): 31–39.
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The study empirically tested the propositions in Locke 1976 and found that facet importance interacted with nine out of twelve job facets to predict satisfaction related to specific job facets. However, facet importance did not interact with eleven job facets to predict overall job satisfaction.
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Social Information Processing Approach

The social information process approach developed by Salancik and Pfeffer 1978 suggests that individuals make use of cues derived from their social environment to form attitudes. This approach has generated a fair amount of controversy and has been thoroughly criticized by Stone 1992. This model remained largely untested in empirical studies.

Salancik, G. R., and J. R. Pfeffer. “A Social Information Processing Approach to Job Attitudes.” Administrative Science Quarterly 23.2 (1978): 224–252.
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The authors suggested that job satisfaction is derived neither from employees’ cognitive evaluations of their jobs nor from their dispositions. Rather, employees’ job satisfaction is derived from cues in their social environment and from how they use these perceived cues to process information about what their attitudes and opinions should be.
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Stone, E. F. “A Critical Analysis of Social Information Processing Model of Job Perceptions and Job Attitudes.” In Job Satisfaction: How People Feel about their Jobs and How it Affects their Performance. Edited by C. J. Cranny, P. C. Smith, and E. F. Stone, 21–52. New York: Lexington Books, 1992.
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The author severely criticizes the social information processing model. He argued that it has mischaracterized need-satisfaction models of job satisfaction and does little to explain how job satisfaction is derived from social cues.
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Job Conditions and Work Characteristics

As opposed to Hackman and Oldham 1980 (see Job Characteristics Model), some researchers have adopted a more piecemeal approach to investigate how work conditions and job characteristics affect job satisfaction. Some commonly studied work conditions include nature of work, pay, leadership, organizational justice, organizational politics, and perceived organizational support.

Nature of Work

How work is structured was once thought to significantly impact one’s job satisfaction. Some of the earlier research in this genre such as Ivancevich 1974 had examined the impact of the length of work week on job satisfaction. Others such as Ivancevich 1979; Kim 1980; Melamed, et al. 1995; and Organ and Greene 1974 have studied how job satisfaction is related to task structures, job boredom, and job purpose. Although informative, this line of inquiry has fallen largely out of favor among current researchers of job satisfaction.

Ivancevich, J. M. “Effects of the Shorter Work Week on Selected Satisfaction and Performance Measures.” Journal of Applied Psychology 59.6 (1974): 717–721.
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The author conducted a field experiment to test the effects of shorter work week on job satisfaction facets and job performance. Found that shorter work duration had a positive impact on some job satisfaction facets and performance measures.
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Ivancevich, J. M. “High and Low task Stimulation Jobs: A Causal Analysis of Performance-Satisfaction Relationships.” Academy of Management Journal 22.2 (1979): 206–222.
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The author tested how task stimulation moderated the job satisfaction/job performance relationship. He found that when engaged in high stimulation tasks, employees experience intrinsic job satisfaction that resulted in better job performance. In low simulation tasks, however, employees perform better only when there are extrinsic factors that make them satisfied with their jobs.
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Kim, J. S. “Relationships of Personality to Perceptual and Behavioral Responses in Stimulating and Non-stimulating Task.” Academy of Management Journal 23.2 (1980): 307–319.
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The author finds that personality interacted with job characteristics to predict job satisfaction. Specifically, extraverts were more satisfied when engaged in a stimulating task and introverts were more satisfied when engaged in non-stimulating tasks.
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Melamed, S., I. Ben-Avi, J. Luz, and M. S. Green. “Objective and Subjective Work Monotony: Effects on Job Satisfaction, Psychological Distress, and Absenteeism in Blue-Collar Workers.” Journal of Applied Psychology 80.1 (1995): 29–42.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.80.1.29 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Examined how work conditions and work monotony were related to job satisfaction and psychological distress. Found that negative work conditions and objective work monotony negatively impacted job satisfaction and that these relationships were mediated by subjective work monotony.
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Organ, D. W., and C. N. Greene. “The Perceived Purposefulness of Job Behavior: Antecedents and Consequences.” Academy of Management Journal 17.1 (1974): 69–78.
DOI: 10.2307/254772 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Past research found a moderate negative relationship between role ambiguity and job satisfaction. This relationship is peculiar since many jobs thought to be desirable and satisfying (e.g., managerial roles) involve a certain degree of role ambiguity. Authors proposed and found that locus of control and perceived purposefulness of job behavior facilitate in reducing the equivocality of role ambiguity.
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Pay

One of the most enduring research areas in social psychology is the relationship between pay, happiness, and life satisfaction. Although pay has been conceptualized in many models of job satisfaction as an important predictor of one’s level of job satisfaction, the empirical relationship between pay and job satisfaction is not clear. Heneman and Judge 2000 argues that there is an unequivocal relationship pay, others such as Spector 1997 argued otherwise. In a recent meta-analysis, Judge, et al. 2010 found strong supporting evidence that pay is only marginally related to job satisfaction.

Heneman, H. G. III, and T. A. Judge. “Compensation Attitudes.” In Compensation in Organizations: Current Research and Practice. Edited by S. L. Rynes and B. Gerhart, 61−203. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000.
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Integrating various theories of job satisfaction, the authors argued that pay is a core component of job satisfaction and the amount of pay itself would have a strong and direct impact on pay satisfaction, which is an important component of job satisfaction.
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Judge, T. A., R. F. Piccolo, N. P. Podsakoff, J. C. Shaw, and B. L. Rich. “The Relationship between Pay and Satisfaction: A Meta-analysis of the Literature.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 77 (2010): 157–167.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jvb.2010.04.002 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors conducted a meta-analysis on the relationship between pay and satisfaction and found that pay levels were only marginally related to job satisfaction.
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Spector, P. E. Job Satisfaction: Application, Assessment, Causes, and Consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1997.
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Based on a synthesis of existing research, the author concluded that pay in itself does not strongly predict job satisfaction.
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Leadership

In several models of job satisfaction, leadership, conceptualized as satisfaction with one’s supervisor, is thought to be an important component of overall job satisfaction. To understand how leadership is related to job satisfaction, Dirks and Ferrin 2002 studied the degree to which employees’ trust in their supervisor is related to their own job satisfaction. In a related study, Gerstner and Day 1997 examines how the quality of interactions between leaders and followers is related to followers’ job satisfaction.

Dirks, K. T., and D. L. Ferrin. “Trust in Leadership: Meta-analytic Findings and Implications for Research and Practice.” Journal of Applied Psychology 87.4 (2002): 611–628.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.611 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that trust in leaders highly correlated with job satisfaction. They provide an estimate of the mean true-score correlation at .65.
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Gerstner, C. R., and D. V. Day. “Meta-analytic Review of Leader-Member Exchange Theory: Correlates and Construct Issues.” Journal of Applied Psychology 82.6 (1997): 827–844.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.827 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) has a true-score correlation of .50 with overall job satisfaction and .71 with satisfaction with supervision.
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Organizational Justice

Organizational justice has been long recognized as an important predictor of job satisfaction. This is because job satisfaction is the evaluative judgment that one makes about one’s job or job situation and experiences of organizational justice is an integral part of that evaluative process. Both Colquitt, et al. 2001 and McFarlin and Sweeney 1992 found evidence that although the various dimensions of organizational justice are related to job satisfaction, the strength of that relationship varies. Taking a different approach, Loi, et al. 2009 that daily job satisfaction fluctuates based on the level of organizational justice one experiences.

Colquitt, J. A., D. E. Colon, M. J. Wesson, C. O. L. H. Porter, and K. Y. Ng. “Justice at the Millennium: A Meta-analytic Review of 25 Years of Organizational Justice Research.” Journal of Applied Psychology 86.3 (2001): 425–445.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.425 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that distributive justice was highly correlated with job satisfaction (r =.46, r_c =.56). Procedural justice was highly correlated with job satisfaction (r =.51, r_c =.62). Interpersonal and informational justice was moderately correlated with job satisfaction (r =.31, r_c =.35). The four justice dimensions jointly explained about 45 percent of variance in job satisfaction (R² =.45)
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Loi, R., J. Yang, and J. M. Diefendorff. “Four-Factor Justice and Daily Job Satisfaction: A Multilevel Investigation.” Journal of Applied Psychology 94.3 (2009): 770–781.
DOI: 10.1037/a0015714 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors tested how the four facets of organizational justice have within and between individual effects on employees’ daily job satisfaction. Found that daily interpersonal and informational justice were related to daily job satisfaction and these relationships were moderated by between individual distributive and procedural justice.
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McFarlin, D. B., and P. D. Sweeney. “Distributive and Procedural Justice as Predictors of Satisfaction with Personal and Organizational Outcomes.” Academy of Management Journal 35.3 (1992): 626–637.
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The authors found that distributive justice was more strongly related to pay and job satisfaction than procedural justice was to both satisfaction variables.
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Organizational Politics

Organizations may promote positive activities, but they are also scenes of antagonism and political behaviors. When the workplace is a political marketplace, individuals attain power by competition and by amassing power. Prior research found that in a politically oriented setting, individuals are more likely to use acrimonious influence techniques such as threats. Employees who do not belong to the most powerful social group would experience problems fulfilling their personal career and job aspirations, thus experience lower levels of job satisfaction. Doing early research in the relationship between organizational politics and job satisfaction, the authors of Gandz and Murray 1980 found that direct experiences of politics are negatively related to job satisfaction. Chang, et al. 2009 and Ferris, et al. 2002 suggest that the mere perception of political climate is sufficient to negatively impact job satisfaction.

Chang, C. -H., C. C. Rosen, and P. E. Levy. “The Relationship Between Perceptions of Organizational Politics and Employees Attitudes, Strain, and Behaviors: A Meta-analytic Examination.” Academy of Management Journal 52.4 (2009): 779–801.
DOI: 10.5465/AMJ.2009.43670894 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors conducted a meta-analysis to investigate the impact of organizational politics on job attitudes (job satisfaction and organizational commitment), and other outcomes such as psychological strain, turnover intentions and job performance (in-role and extra-role). They found that organizational politics had a significant negative impact on job satisfaction (−.57) and job attitudes fully mediated the relationship between organizational politics and turnover intentions/ job performance.
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Ferris, G. R., G. Adams, R. W. Kolodinsky, W. A. Hochwarter, and A. P. Ammeter. “Perceptions of Organizational Politics: Theory and Research Directions.” In The Many Faces of Multi-level Issues. Edited by F. J. Yammarino and F. Danseraeu, 179–254. Amsterdam: JAI, Elsevier Science, 2002.
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The authors presented a detailed multilevel theoretical model describing how organizational politics will negatively influence job-related outcomes such as job satisfaction.
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Gandz, J., and V. V. Murray. “The Experience of Workplace Politics.” Academy of Management Journal 23.2 (1980): 237–251.
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The authors investigated the process of how organizational processes are politicized and described the outcomes of the politicization process. They proposed that perceived politicization negatively affects job satisfaction and that experiences of workplace politics should be considered as a dimension of overall job satisfaction.
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Perceived Organizational Support

Perceived organizational support has its theoretical roots in organizational support theory and social exchange theory. Organizational support theory suggested that employees assign humanlike characteristics to the organizations they are in and view favorable or unfavorable treatment as an indication of whether the organization favors or disfavors them. Social exchange theory, on the other hand, suggests that resources received from organizations are highly valued when they are based on discretionary choice rather than external circumstances. When an organization rewards its employees with favorable job conditions such as pay, promotion, and job enrichment, and when such resources are perceived by employees to be voluntarily given to them by their organizations, they are more likely to feel that their organizations are supportive of them. Perceived organizational support has been hypothesized to influence job satisfaction by meeting socio-emotional needs, increase performance-reward expectations, and signal the availability of support when needed. Conceptually, although perceived organizational support is an antecedent of job satisfaction, their empirical relationship is less clear. Eisenberger, et al. 1997 and Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002 found that both concepts are highly correlated with each other.

Eisenberger, R., J. Cummings, S. Armeli, and P. Lynch. “Perceived Organizational Support, Discretionary Treatment, and Job Satisfaction.” Journal of Applied Psychology 82.5 (1997): 812–820.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.82.5.812 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that although perceived organizational support is highly correlated with job satisfaction, respondents are still able to distinguish between the two constructs. Furthermore, a model that treated perceived organizational support and job satisfaction as distinct constructs is a better approximation of the data than a model that treat perceived organizational support and job satisfaction as a single construct.
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Rhoades, L., and R. Eisenberger. “Perceived Organizational Support: A Review of Literature (Meta-analysis).” Journal of Applied Psychology 87.4 (2002): 698–714.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.698 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that perceived organizational support was highly correlated with job satisfaction (r=.59, r_c=.62).
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Other Causes of Job Satisfaction

Besides the four theoretical approaches of job satisfaction, researchers have also examined how demographical variables such as age, gender, and race affect job satisfaction. Other than demographical factors, Barrett, et al. 1980 and Ganzach 1998 (both cited under Intelligence) linked employees’ general level of intelligence to their job satisfaction. Furthermore, Judge and Ilies 2004 and Weiss, et al. 1999 (both cited under Mood) had examined the relationship between individuals’ mood and their job satisfaction. These studies, together with studies presented in other sections of this bibliography suggest that the nomological structure of job satisfaction is highly complex and myriad.

Demographic Variables: Age

It is generally believed that job satisfaction has a linear relationship with age, but there are many theoretical arguments and empirical evidence suggesting that job satisfaction and age have a U-shaped relationship. Kacmar and Ferris 1989 and Clark, et al. 1996 found that job satisfaction declined in one’s early career and increased steadily from mid-career to retirement. Similarly, Herzberg, et al. 1957 suggests that job satisfaction is likely to first decline because of boredom and increase subsequently due to job acceptance and job mobility.

Clark, A., A. Oswald, and P. Warr. “Is Job Satisfaction U-shaped in Age?” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 69.1 (1996): 57–81.
DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8325.1996.tb00600.x Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
After controlling for more than eighty control variables, the authors found that job satisfaction declined after early employment before increasing steadily until retirement, therefore providing strong evidence to support the U-shape relationship between job satisfaction and age.
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Herzberg, F. I., B. Mausner, R. O. Peterson, and D. R. Capwell. Job Attitudes: Review of Research and Opinion. Pittsburgh, PA: Psychological Services of Pittsburgh, 1957.
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One of the earliest articles to argue for a U-shape relationship between job satisfaction and age. Authors argued that job satisfaction decreases in early career due to boredom and perceptions of decreasing career opportunities. Job satisfaction would, however, increase with age as employees come to terms with their job roles or as they move out of unsatisfactory positions.
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Kacmar, K. M., and G. R. Ferris. “Theoretical and Methodological Considerations in the Age-job Satisfaction Relationship.” Journal of Applied Psychology 74.2 (1989): 201–207.
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Past research on the age-satisfaction relationship has produced inconclusive results, partly because of atheoretical nature of the research and the inconsistency in applying job tenure as a control variable. Using hierarchical polynomial regression and better control variables for job tenure, the authors found that age and four job satisfaction facets (pay, promotion, supervisor, and coworker) followed a U-shape curvilinear relationship, with satisfaction being the lowest at about forty years old.
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Demographic Variables: Gender

Early researchers on job satisfaction were keen to uncover gender differences in job satisfaction level. Varca, et al. 1983 suggests that some gender differences might exist but these differences are at present only moderated by the occupational level. In a same vein, Weaver 1978 found that men and women do not differ significantly on job satisfaction measures and therefore concluded that it is not necessary to distinguish between men and women when examining job satisfaction.

Varca, P. E., G. S. Shaffer, and C. D. McCauley. “Sex Differences in Job Satisfaction revisited.” Academy of Management Journal 26.2 (1983): 348–353.
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The authors found some gender differences in job satisfaction to organizational rewards (pay and promotion) and these relationships were moderated by occupational level. Specifically, higher occupational level men and lower occupational level women were more satisfied than their peers on these two factors.
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Weaver, C. N. “Sex Differences in the Determinants of Job Satisfaction.” Academy of Management Journal 21.2 (1978): 265–274.
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The author investigated gender differences on thirteen different determinants of job satisfaction and found that males and females did not differ significantly. Concluded that it is not necessary for researchers to distinguish between males and females when investigating job satisfaction.
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Demographic Variables: Race

Similar to gender, early researchers were keen to uncover how job satisfaction would differ among different racial groups. In an early study on racial differences, O’Reilly and Roberts 1973 found that racial differences of job satisfaction could be explained by how whites and non-whites evaluate their jobs with culturally grounded frames of references. Unlike O’Reilly and Roberts 1973, Vecchio 1980 focused on how race would moderate the relationship between job quality and job satisfaction.

O’Reilly, C. A., and K. H. Roberts. “Job Satisfaction among Whites and Non-Whites.” Journal of Applied Psychology 57.3 (1973): 295–299.
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The authors found that whites and non-whites used different frames of reference to evaluate their job. These culturally grounded frames of references influenced the way whites and non-whites perceived whether their jobs or job facets were satisfying.
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Vecchio, R. P. “Worker Alienation as a Moderator of the Job Quality-Job Satisfaction Relationship: The Case of Racial differences.” Academy of Management Journal 23.3 (1980): 479–486.
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The author found that race significantly moderated the relationship between job quality and job satisfaction such that employees from racial minority were less satisfied than whites with their job when their jobs were of high prestige and are more satisfied than whites when their jobs were of low prestige. Cautioned against taking the results of the study at face value and argued that more studies need to be conducted to understand the how racial differences affects job satisfaction.
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Intelligence

While the relationships between intelligence (or abilities) and job performance are strongly supported, how intelligence and abilities are related to attitudinal variables such as job satisfaction remains less unclear. Both Forbes and Barrett 1978 and Barrett, et al. 1980 found that intelligence is negatively related to job satisfaction, with task complexity being a possible moderator of that relationship.

Barrett, G. V., J. B. Forbes, E. J. O’Connor, and R. A. Alexander. “Ability-Satisfaction Relationships: Field and laboratory studies.” Academy of Management Journal 23.3 (1980): 550–555.
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One of the earliest studies that empirically tested the relationship between intelligence and job satisfaction. Found that there was a negative relationship between intelligence and satisfaction. They explained that this is because intelligent individuals have higher expectations of their own job performance and therefore experience greater frustration in trying to perform their job well, leading to lower levels of job satisfaction.
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Forbes, J. B., and G. V. Barrett. “Individual Abilities and Task Demands in Relations to Performance and Satisfaction on Two Repetitive Monitoring Tasks.” Journal of Applied Psychology 63.2 (1978): 188–196.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.63.2.188 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that there was a negative relationship between abilities and satisfaction on simple tasks and an inverted-U shape relationship on moderated complex tasks. They suggested that satisfaction for high abilities individuals occurred only on complex tasks where job demands more closely matched their cognitive and perceptual capabilities.
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Ganzach, Y. “Intelligence and Job Satisfaction.” Academy of Management Journal 41.5 (1998): 526–539.
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The author proposed and tested a model where intelligence has a direct, an indirect (mediated by job complexity), and a moderated (moderated by job complexity) relationship with job satisfaction. Results largely corroborated with previous studies (e.g., Barrett, et al. 1980) that intelligence was negatively related to satisfaction. However, he found that this relationship was likely to be moderated by job complexity such that intelligent individuals experienced high degree of job satisfaction only when engaged in fairly complex tasks.
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Mood

Although the classic definition in Locke 1976 (cited under Theoretical Approaches: Interactive Approach: Value-Percept Model of Satisfaction) suggesting that job satisfaction has both cognitive and affective components has been widely accepted by researchers, most research on job satisfaction continued to focus on cognitive models of job satisfaction. In comparison, understanding how affect influences job satisfaction has been neglected. Weiss, et al. 1999 and Judge and Ilies 2004 argue that a shift of focus from cognitive to affective models of job satisfaction is important and necessary because cognitive models of job satisfaction do not explain variations in job satisfaction. And temporal variation in job satisfaction could be due to variations in mood or emotions. Both studies found that variation in affect has independent and significant contributions to job satisfaction.

Judge, T. A., and R. Ilies. “Affect and Job Satisfaction: A Study of Their Relationship at Work and at Home.” Journal of Applied Psychology 89.4 (2004): 661–673.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.661 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors argued that mood corresponds more closely to job satisfaction than affectivity is to job satisfaction and that mood mediates the relationship between trait affectivity and job satisfaction. Found that daily mood at work significantly predicted job satisfaction and partially mediated the relationship of PA and job satisfaction.
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Weiss, H. M., J. P. Nicholas, and C. S. Daus. “An Examination of the Joint Effects of Affective Experiences and Job Beliefs on Job Satisfaction and Variations in Affective Experiences Over Time.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 78.1 (1999): 1–24.
DOI: 10.1006/obhd.1999.2824 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Using experience sampling to investigate the relationship between affective experiences and job satisfaction, the authors found that mood at work and job beliefs had independent and significant contributions toward explaining job satisfaction. Also found that these explanations were more convincing than those made by subjective well-being. The authors concluded that job satisfaction has both affective and job belief components.
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Reviews of Job Satisfaction Research

Research on job satisfaction has grown exponentially over the years. In 1976 Locke estimated that more than 3,350 articles/unpublished dissertations had been written on job satisfaction. Judge and Larsen 2001, in a comprehensive review, found that there are approximately 7,856 research articles on job satisfaction. Many of these studies are devoted primarily to examine the construct and measurement of job satisfaction, antecedents and causes of satisfaction, or outcomes of satisfaction on employees and organizations. A small number of these articles, however, were written with the aim of summarizing and consolidating research done to date. This section consists of several review articles that have succinctly summarized the existing research on job satisfaction.

Arvey, R. D., G. W. Carter, and D. Buerkley. “Job Satisfaction: Dispositional and Situational Influences.” In International Review of Industrial Organizational Psychology. Vol. 6. Edited by C. L. Cooper and I. T. Robertson, 359–383. John Wiley, 1991.
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This is a comprehensive review that introduced four different theoretical models to explain how dispositional and situation factors can independently and jointly affect job satisfaction.
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Hulin, C. L., and T. A. Judge. “Job Attitudes.” In Handbook of Psychology. Vol. 12, Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Edited by W. C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen, R. J. Klimoski, and I. B. Weiner, 255–276. New York: Wiley, 2003.
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An easy-to-read chapter on job satisfaction research. Emphasis is on introducing and comparing different theoretical models of job satisfaction. A suitable read for someone new to job satisfaction research.
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Judge, T. A., and R. J. Larsen. “Dispositional Affect and Job Satisfaction: A Review and Theoretical Extension.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 86.1 (2001): 67–98.
DOI: 10.1006/obhd.2001.2973 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors reviewed research on dispositional approaches to job satisfaction and suggested two areas most in need of research: (1) what trait(s) should be included in investigating dispositional sources of job satisfaction, and (2) the theoretical processes underlying the relationship between dispositional trait(s) on job satisfaction. Concluded that Neuroticism and Extraversion, affect (PANAs), and core self-evaluation were the dispositional variables best suited to predict job satisfaction.
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Measures of Job Satisfaction

Despite almost seventy years of research, job satisfaction continues to be inconsistently defined (Weiss 2002 [cited under Defining Job Satisfaction: Critiques of the Job Satisfaction Construct). The inconsistency in the definition has led to a proliferation of measures that tap into different aspects of satisfaction (Organ and Near 1985 [see Affective vs. Cognitive Measures of Job Satisfaction]; Wanous and Lawler 1972 [cited under Psychometric Properties of Measurements]). For example, some measures look predominantly at employees’ satisfaction with specific facets of their jobs (cognitive-based measures), while other measures assess individuals’ feelings toward what they do (affective based measures). Notwithstanding theoretical and conceptual differences, measures of job satisfaction can be classified largely into three categories: (1) facet measures of job satisfaction, (2) global measures of job satisfaction, and (3) single-item measures of job satisfaction. Without going into an extensive discussion on the psychometric properties of various job satisfaction measures, we introduce some of the most commonly used job satisfaction measures and present a selection of articles that discussed the psychometric properties of these measures.

Facet-Based Measures

Facet-based measures of job satisfaction are closely related to the cognitive approach of studying job satisfaction. The cognitive approach suggested that job satisfaction is a function of employees’ satisfaction with various facets/aspects/components of their job. Smith, et al. 1969 and Weiss, et al. 1976 are two of the most commonly used facet-based measures of job satisfaction.

Smith, P. C., L. M. Kendall, and C. L. Hulin. Measurement of Satisfaction in Work and Retirement. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969.
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The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) is one of the most widely used measures of job satisfaction. It comprises seventy-two items that measure five facets of job satisfaction: pay, promotion, supervision, coworkers, and work itself. Respondents are asked whether these various facets are present in their jobs using a yes/no format. It is assumed that a “yes” means that the respondent is satisfied.
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Weiss, D., R. Davis, G. England, and L. Lofquist. Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minnesota Studies on Vocational Rehabilitation, Vol. 22. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Industrial Relations Centre, 1976.
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The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) consists of a 100-item “long form” and a twenty-item “short form. The “long form” has twenty subscales that measure different aspects of job satisfaction. The “short form” has twenty items, with twelve measuring intrinsic satisfaction and eight measuring extrinsic satisfaction.
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Global Measures

As opposed to measuring employees’ satisfaction on specific job facets, some researchers had argued that a global measure of job satisfaction is more relevant to research because job satisfaction is a general feeling that one has toward one’s job. Judge, et al. 1994; Ironson, et al. 1989; and Warr, et al. 1979 are three commonly used measures of global satisfaction. In addition, Cammann, et al.’s (1979) and its three-item measure of job satisfaction (unpublished) was found by Bowling and Hammond 2008 to be a reliable and construct-valid global measure of job satisfaction.

Bowling, N. A., and G. D. Hammond. “A Meta-analytic Examination of the Construct Validity of the Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire Job Satisfaction Scale.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 73 (2008): 63–77.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jvb.2008.01.004 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
In a meta-analysis of eighty articles that have used the Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire (MOAQ), the authors found the MOAQ to be a reliable and valid global measure of job satisfaction, with the added advantage of it being relatively short (three-item) and more easily administered than complex measures of job satisfaction such as the JDI.
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Ironson, G., P. Smith, M. Brannick, M. Gibson, and K. Paul. “Construction of a Job in General Scale: A Comparison of Global, Composite and Specific Measures.” Journal of Applied Psychology 74.2 (1989): 193–200.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.74.2.193 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The scale consists of eighteen items that measure global job satisfaction. The scale was designed to assess global satisfaction independently from facet measures.
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Judge, T. A., Boudreau, J. W., and Bretz, R. D. “Job and life attitudes of male executives.” Journal of Applied Psychology 79.5 (1994): 767–782.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.79.5.767 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
This is one of the shortest scale that measures global job satisfaction. The scale comprises three items that measure global job satisfaction and is easily administered.
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Warr, P., J. Cook, and T. Wall. “Scales for the measurement of some work attitudes and aspects of psychological well-being.” Journal of Occupational Psychology 52 (1979): 129–148.
DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8325.1979.tb00448.x Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The scale consists of fifteen items measuring global job satisfaction. It has two subscales that assess extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction.
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Single-Item Measures

Although there are several single-item measures of job satisfaction, Kunin 1955 and its FACES scale is the most well validated. Wanous, et al. 1997 (cited under Psychometric Properties of Measurements) found that the Kunin’s FACES scale is reliable enough to be used as a measure of job satisfaction, and Judge, et al. 1994 (cited under Global Measures) has incorporated the Kunin FACES scale in their overall job satisfaction scale.

Kunin, T. “The Construction of a New Type of Attitude Measure.” Personnel Psychology 8.1 (1955): 65–77.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1955.tb01189.x Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Existing attitudes scale use words and language as a primary means of assessing attitudes. The author contended that this had led to unintended errors when respondents misinterpret items. In addition, items often do not fully reflect respondents’ attitudes toward the various facets. These errors are more pronounced when respondents have low literacy abilities. To overcome these problems, the author developed a projective attitude scale that utilized pictorial representation of faces to measure attitudes.
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Compendium of Measurements

Fields 2002 has an excellent list of all major job satisfaction measures. A useful resource guide for researchers.

Fields, D. L. “Chapter 1: Job Satisfaction.” In Taking the Measure of Work: A Guide to Validated Scales for Organizational Research and Diagnosis. Edited by D. L. Fields, 5–41. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2002.
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This is a handbook on validated scales that provide detailed descriptions of most, if not all, existing measures of job satisfaction. Each scale in the chapter is annotated by a short description of the scale (e.g., what it measures, its psychometric properties), the scale’s original source, and a complete list of scale items.
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Affective vs. Cognitive Measures of Job Satisfaction

Although recent conceptualizations of job satisfaction have suggested that it is a job attitude that comprises both job-related cognitions and affect, measures of satisfaction typically do not always reflect such perspectives. Brief and Roberson 1989 explores how popular measures of satisfaction differ in the degree that they tapped on cognitive and affective aspects of job satisfaction. Organ and Near 1985 argues for greater clarity on how job satisfaction measures should be constructed since this would have a profound impact on research findings.

Brief, A. P., and L. Roberson. “Job Attitude Organization: An Exploratory Study.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 19.9 (1989): 717–727.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1989.tb01254.x Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Job satisfaction is thought to contain both cognitive and affective components. The authors explored to what extent are commonly used measures of satisfaction tapping into these different components. They found that Weiss, et al. 1976 is the most cognitive-based measure of satisfaction while the Kunin’s 1955 FACES scale is most affective in nature. Although Smith, et al. 1969 (cited under Interactive Approach: Cornell Model) has both cognitive and affective components, it is a predominantly cognitive scale.
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Organ, D. W., and J. P. Near. “Cognition vs. Affect in Measures of Job Satisfaction.” International Journal of Psychology 20 (1985): 241–253.
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Athough definitions of job satisfaction suggest that it has both cognitive and affective components, most existing measures of job satisfaction are more cognitive than affective in nature. The authors called for researchers to reconsider how job satisfaction and its measures are being constructed, since affective and cognitive systems are somewhat independent of each other and have different antecedents and causes different consequences.
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Psychometric Properties of Measurements

There are no fewer than twenty-one commonly used measures of job satisfaction (Fields 2002 [cited under Compendium of Measurements]). However, not all measures share the same degree of psychometric soundness. Researchers such as Scarpello and Hayton 2001 and Wanous, et al. 1997 examine the psychometric robustness of satisfaction measures by comparing them with each other. Brooke, et al. 1988 and Wanous and Lawler 1972 conduct discriminant validity tests to examine how different measures are related to organizational outcomes. Scarpello and Campbell 1983, on the other hand, test whether it is psychometrically appropriate to aggregate job facets measures into a global measure of satisfaction. Schneider and Dachler 1978 focuses on examining the test and retest reliability of JDI, one of the most popular measures of job satisfaction.

Brooke, P. P., D. W. Russell, and J. L. Price. “Discriminant Validation of Measures of Job Satisfaction, Job Involvement, and Organizational Commitment.” Journal of Applied Psychology 72.2 (1988): 139–145.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.73.2.139 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Although job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment are commonly accepted to be conceptually distinct, most empirical research found that they were highly correlated. Using confirmatory factor analysis, the authors found the three constructs to be empirically distinct and respondents were generally able to distinguish between the three constructs.
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Scarpello, V., and J. P. Campbell. “Job Satisfaction: Are All the Parts There?” Personnel Psychology 36 (1983): 577–600.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1983.tb02236.x Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors argued against the common practice of aggregating scores of job satisfaction facets from scales such as JDI and MSQ and equating the aggregated scores as a measure of global job satisfaction. They concluded that global satisfaction and facets of satisfaction tapped into different aspects of satisfaction and recommended using only measures that fit the specific purpose of research.
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Scarpello, V., and J. C. Hayton. “Chapter 6: Identifying Sources of Nonequivalence in Measures of Job Satisfaction.” In Equivalence in Measurement. Edited by C. A. Schrieshiem and L. L. Neider, 131–160. Greenwich, CT: Information Age, 2001.
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An excellent chapter on psychometric properties of six popular measures of job satisfaction. The measures selected comprised popular measures from each type of measure: facet, global, and single-item.
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Schneider, B., and H. P. Dachler. “A Note on the Stability of the Job Descriptive Index.” Journal of Applied Psychology 63.5 (1978): 650–653.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.63.5.650 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Using multitrait and multimethod analyses, the authors found that the JDI is a relatively stable measure with high test and retest reliability over a period of sixteen months.
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Wanous, J. P., and E. E. Lawler III. “Measurement and Meaning of Job Satisfaction.” Journal of Applied Psychology 56.2 (1972): 95–105.
DOI: 10.1037/h0032664 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors reviewed nine operational definitions of job satisfaction and found that they do not yield empirically comparable measures: some of the measures were found to correlate better with overall satisfaction and absenteeism, while some did not. They suggested that more theorizing and research are needed to map in detail the relationships between different measures of job satisfaction and their independent/dependent variables.
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Wanous, J. P., A. E. Reichers, and M. J. Hudy. “Overall Job Satisfaction: How Good are Single-item Measures?” Journal of Applied Psychology 82.2 (1997): 247–252.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.82.2.247 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors conducted a meta-analysis on the reliability of single-item measures of job satisfaction. Found that the reliability of single-item measures was generally acceptable and recommended several conditions under which single-item measure of job satisfaction can be used.
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Fluctuations in Job Satisfaction

Dispositional approaches of job satisfaction suggest that there are stable dispositional factors (e.g., trait affectivity, personality, genetic influences) that influence individuals’ satisfaction with their job. Recently, however, researchers have begun to explore within-person variations of job satisfaction. Using diary and event sampling methods, researchers have studied how factors such as work events (Bowling, et al. 2005; Loi, et al. 2009), changes to work structures (Boswell, et al. 2005 and Boswell, et al. 2009, both cited under Changes to Work Structures), and changes in daily mood can result in variations in job satisfaction (Judge and Ilies 2004; Ilies and Judge 2002; and Weiss, et al. 1999 [all cited under Daily Mood]).

Daily Work Events

Although job satisfaction is relatively stable, it is likely to have significant daily variability due to different daily circumstances faced by employees. Bowling, et al. 2005 developed a model to explain how daily workplace experiences can affect job satisfaction and factors that influence the rate that daily job satisfaction returns to long-term equilibrium after encountering daily work events. Loi, et al. 2009 examines how job satisfaction varies on a daily basis due to exposure to daily experiences of organizational justice.

Bowling, N. A., T. A. Beehr, S. H. Wagner, and T. M. Libkuman. “Adaptation-level Theory, Opponent Process Theory, and Dispositions: An Integrated Approach to the Stability of Job Satisfaction.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90.6 (2005): 1044–1053.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1044 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors proposed that adaptation-level theory and opponent process theory may provide a more complete picture on why job satisfaction is stable across time. Integrating perspectives from adaptation-level theory and opponent process theory, dispositions are believed to influence individuals’ adaptation level of job satisfaction, their sensitivity to workplace events, and the speed at which job satisfaction returns to equilibrium after one is exposed to a workplace event.
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Loi, R., J. Yang, and J. M. Diefendorff. “Four-Factor Justice and Daily Job Satisfaction: A Multilevel Investigation.” Journal of Applied Psychology 94.3 (2009): 770–781.
DOI: 10.1037/a0015714 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors tested how four facets of organizational justice have within and between individual effects on employees’ daily job satisfaction. Found that daily interpersonal and informational justice were related to daily job satisfaction and these relationships were moderated by between-individual distributive and procedural justice.
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Changes to Work Structures

Although job satisfaction is relatively stable in the long run, it may have significant variation in the short run due to changes in individuals’ work structure, specifically, when there are changes in their work arrangements. In two separate but similar studies, Boswell, et al. 2005 and Boswell, et al. 2009 explain how job satisfaction fluctuates immediately after individuals changed their jobs and when they joined a new company.

Boswell, W. R., J. W. Boudreau, and J. Tichy. “The Relationship Between Employee Job Change and Job Satisfaction: The Honeymoon-Hangover Effect.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90.5 (2005): 882–892.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.882 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors investigated how job satisfaction levels changed systematically during the turnover process. Found that low job satisfaction led to job change, and individuals experienced an increase in job satisfaction immediately after job change, followed by a general decline in job satisfaction soon after.
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Boswell, W. R, A. J. Shipp, S. C. Payne, and S. S. Culbertson. “Changes in Newcomer Job Satisfaction Over Time: Examining the Pattern of Honeymoons and Hangovers.” Journal of Applied Psychology 94.4 (2009): 844–858.
DOI: 10.1037/a0014975 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that job satisfaction generally showed a curvilinear pattern over time, with job satisfaction being the highest immediately when new entrants joined the organization and declining soon thereafter. They also found that this relationship was moderated by several factors such as individuals’ job satisfaction in a prior job.
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Daily Mood

Variations and variability in individuals’ daily mood is thought to be an important predictor of fluctuations in individuals’ daily report of job satisfaction. Ilies and Judge 2002 argues that within-person variation in job satisfaction can be attributed to variations in daily mood. Similarly, Judge and Ilies 2004 and Weiss, et al. 1999 find that mood is significantly related to job satisfaction and its effects on job satisfaction is above and beyond those accounted for by affectivity (PANA) and subjective well-being.

Ilies, R., and T. Judge. “Understanding the Dynamic Relationships among Personality, Mood, and Job Satisfaction: A Field Experience Sampling Study.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process 89 (2002): 1119–1139.
DOI: 10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00018-3 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors argued that variation in job satisfaction across time may not be due to stochastic error but were results of substantive changes in feelings related to the job. The authors examined the dynamic relationships between job satisfaction and two commonly studied causes of satisfaction: mood and personality. They found that within-individual job satisfaction varied substantially across time due to variability and variation in mood over time.
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Judge, T. A., and R. Ilies. “Affect and Job Satisfaction: A Study of Their Relationship at Work and at Home.” Journal of Applied Psychology 89.4 (2004): 661–673.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.661 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors argued that mood corresponds more closely to job satisfaction than affectivity to job satisfaction and that mood mediates the relationship between affectivity and job satisfaction. They found support that daily mood at work significantly predicted job satisfaction and mood partially mediated the relationship of PA and job satisfaction.
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Weiss, H. M., J. P. Nicholas, and C. S. Daus. “An Examination of the Joint Effects of Affective Experiences and Job Beliefs on Job Satisfaction and Variations in Affective Experiences Over Time.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 78.1 (1999): 1–24.
DOI: 10.1006/obhd.1999.2824 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors used experience sampling to investigate the relationship of affective experiences to job satisfaction. They found that mood at work and job beliefs significantly explained job satisfaction, over and above the explanations made by subjective well-being.
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Consequences of Job Satisfaction: Organizationally Relevant Outcomes

Job satisfaction is one of the most important variables in organizational research and is thought to affect a number of organizationally relevant outcomes. One of the most commonly studied organizational outcomes of job satisfaction is job performance. Other organizational outcomes include job behaviors such as commitment and turnover. In this section, we will present some studies on these areas.

Job Performance

Researchers have always been intrigued by the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. As early as the Hawthorne studies (1920s to 1930s), researchers have investigated how satisfaction is related to productivity. As of the 21st century, research on job satisfaction and job performance continues to be conducted. Despite the large number of studies conducted, the relationship between satisfaction and performance remains complex and inconclusive (Fisher 1985; Fisher 2003; Schleicher, et al. 2004). Some studies found that there was a positive but modest relationship between employees’ satisfaction and their job performance, yet others have found such relationships to be generally absent (or even in some cases, negative). Despite the inconsistencies in satisfaction-performance relationship at the individual level, studies on the organization level found that organizations with higher levels of job satisfaction outperform others with lower levels of satisfaction (Ostroff 1992). Given the large number of empirical studies and the general inconsistency of results, it is difficult to select a representative set of articles that can adequately present arguments both for and against the satisfaction-performance relationship. Instead, we selected several articles that clarify and explain how and why job satisfaction should or should not be related to job performance. Also, in this section, we highlighted two meta-analyses (Iaffaldano and Muchinsky 1985 and Judge, et al. 2001) that attempt to find the true-score correlation between job satisfaction and job performance.

Fisher, C. D. “On the Dubious Wisdom of Expecting Job Satisfaction to Correlate with Performance.” Academy of Management Review 5.4 (1985): 607–612.
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The author suggests that the mixed findings on the relationship between job satisfaction and performance could be due to a “misfit” between attitude measures (measurement of job satisfaction) and behavioral criteria (job performance). Recommends that organizational researchers interested in studying job satisfaction and job performance relationship can benefit from advances in attitude research. The author mentions three specific aspects that organizational researchers can learn from: consistency of definition, conceptualization and measurement of behavior, and specificity of attitude measures.
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Fisher, C. D. “Why Do Lay People Believe that Satisfaction and Performance are Correlated? Possible Sources of Commonsense Theory.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 24 (2003): 753–777.
DOI: 10.1002/job.219 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Individuals continue to believe that there are strong relationships between job satisfaction and job performance despite research showing these two factors are, at best, modestly related. The author tested several hypotheses that might have given rise to these lay beliefs. Concluded that beliefs of satisfaction leading to performance could be attributed to either observations in subpopulation, self-sustaining myth, or due to social exchange belief of reciprocity norms.
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Iaffaldano, M. T., and P. M. Muchinsky. “Job Satisfaction and Job Performance: A Meta-analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 97.2 (1985): 251–273.
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.97.2.251 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Having analyzed 217 correlations from seventy-two studies, the authors estimated that the true score between job satisfaction and job performance to be .17 and concluded that job satisfaction and job performance were at best slightly related to each other. They also examined several moderators of the relationship but none of the moderators were significant and concluded that “the moderators were of little consequences” (p. 276).
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Judge, T. A., C. L. Thoresen, J. E. Bono, and G. K. Patton. “The Job Satisfaction–Job Performance Relationship: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review.” Psychological Bulletin 127.3 (2001): 376–407.
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.127.3.376 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Reviews seven existing models of job satisfaction–job performance relationship and found mixed empirical support for the models. They also reviewed two existing meta-analyses on the job satisfaction–job performance relationship and concluded their results might have been due to erroneous treatment of job satisfaction construct. In their new meta-analysis, they found that the true correlation between job satisfaction and performance to be .30, much higher than the oft-cited .17 found in the earlier meta-analysis by Iaffaldano and Muchinsky 1985. Explained that the higher correlation can be attributed to the use of composite correlations recommended by Hunter and Schmidt (1990), the use of inter-rater reliability to correct the estimates, problematic treatment of the job satisfaction construct by previous researchers, and misinterpretation of findings in past meta-analyses.
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Ostroff, C. “The Relationship Between Satisfaction, Attitudes, and Performance: An Organizational Level Analysis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 77.6 (1992): 963–974.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.77.6.963 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Most research on job satisfaction-performance relationship was done at the individual level. Little research has been done on the organizational level. The author examined how job satisfaction and other job-related attitudes were related to organizational performance. Found that the job performance–satisfaction relationship was supported at the organizational level and was somewhat stronger than those observed on the individual level.
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Schleicher, D. J., J. D. Watt, and G. J. Greguras. “Reexamining the Job Satisfaction–Performance Relationship: The Complexity of Attitudes.” Journal of Applied Psychology 89.1 (2004): 165–177.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.1.165 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Argues that the belief that job satisfaction has little to do with job performance is due to an overly simplistic conceptualization and operationalization of job satisfaction construct and misinterpretation of the job satisfaction and performance relationship. They attempted to clarify the satisfaction-performance relationship by studying how the nature of attitude affects the relationship between job satisfaction and performance.
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Job Attitudes and Behaviors

Job satisfaction is an important job attitude that has profound implications on other job-related outcomes such as absenteeism, turnover, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior. The importance of job satisfaction is further emphasized by several seminal models of absenteeism and turnover intentions postulating that job satisfaction is a central factor that affects employees’ absenteeism and turnover behaviors. In this section, we highlighted several studies on these relationships.

Absenteeism

Although job satisfaction is thought to be a central variable that determines employees’ absenteeism, research finding on this relationship has been inconsistent. While some studies found that job satisfaction was negatively related to absenteeism, others found that the relationship between the two to be almost non-existent. Scott and Taylor 1985 conducted a meta-analysis to determine the turn-score correlation between job satisfaction and absenteeism.

Scott, K. D., and G. S. Taylor. “An Examination of Conflicting Findings on the Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism: A Meta-analysis.” Academy of Management Journal 28.3 (1985): 599–612.
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The authors found that there is a moderate relationship between (1) satisfaction with work and absence, (2) satisfaction with coworkers and absence and (3) global satisfaction and absence. The association between different aspects of satisfaction and absence frequency was stronger than those between satisfaction and absence duration. Attributed mixed findings in previous studies to small sample sizes and different measures used.
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Turnover

In studying the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover, researchers typically examined how changes in job satisfaction over time were related to turnover intentions and actual turnover behaviors (Chen, et al. 2011; Porter, et al. 1974). However, not all employees who exhibited low levels of job satisfaction quit their job. Hom and Kinicki 2001 and Swider, et al. 2011 examine the specific conditions under which dissatisfied employees quit their job, and Griffeth, et al. 2000 conducted a meta-analysis to uncover the true-score correlation between satisfaction and turnover.

Chen, G., R. E. Ployhart, H. C. Thomas, N. Anderson, and P. D. Bliese. “The Power of Momentum: A New Model of Dynamic Relationships Between Job Satisfaction Change and Turnover Intentions.” Academy of Management Journal 54.1 (2011): 159–181.
DOI: 10.5465/AMJ.2011.59215089 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The study presented and tested a dynamic model of how changes in job satisfaction over time affect employees’ intentions to quit. Using four samples, the authors found that the relationship between job satisfaction changes and intentions to quit was mediated by work expectations and can be moderated by organizational tenure.
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Griffeth, R. W., P. W. Hom, and S. Gaertner. “A Meta-analysis of the Antecedents and Correlates of Employee Turnover: Update, Moderator Tests, and Research Implications for the Next Millennium.” Journal of Management 26.3 (2000): 463–488.
DOI: 10.1177/014920630002600305 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors conducted a updated meta-analysis on the antecedents of turnover and found that the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover to be −.19
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Hom, P. W., and A. J. Kinicki. “Towards Greater Understanding of How Dissatisfaction Drives Employee Turnover.” Academy of Management Journal 44.4 (2001): 975–987.
DOI: 10.2307/3069441 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Given that job satisfaction is the starting point of several seminal turnover process models, the authors empirically tested the Hom and Griffeth’s 1991 model by integrating inter-role conflict, unemployment, and job avoidance to better explain and clarify how job dissatisfaction leads to actual turnover.
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Porter, L. W., R. M. Steers, R. T. Mowday, and P. W. Boulian. “Organizational Commitment, Job Satisfaction and Turnover Intentions among Psychiatric Technicians.” Journal of Applied Psychology 59.5 (1974): 603–609.
DOI: 10.1037/h0037335 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
This is a highly cited study on the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intentions. Suggested that job satisfaction is an unstable affective reaction to immediate work environment and that organization commitment is a long-term and slow-developing attitude. The authors proposed that job satisfaction precede organizational commitment and found that job satisfaction was the lowest at points in time closest to when employees leave the organization.
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Swider, B. W., W. R. Boswell, and R. D. Zimmerman. “Examining the Job Search–Turnover Relationship: The Role of Embeddedness, Job Satisfaction, and Available Alternatives.” Journal of Applied Psychology 96.2 (2011): 432–441.
DOI: 10.1037/a0021676 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Employed job seekers form the largest population of job seekers. However, not all employees who searched for jobs leave their organization. The authors found that job satisfaction moderated the relationship between job search and turnover in that employees who were looking for employment alternatives were more likely to quit their current job if they were dissatisfied with it.
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Organizational Commitment

The causal relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment has been a constant source of debate. Where some scholars argued that satisfaction precedes commitment, others have found that organizational commitment is a significant predictor of job satisfaction. Using longitudinal design, Bateman and Strasser 1984 and Mathieu 1991 find that there is a recursive relationship between the two variables.

Bateman, T. S., and S. Strasser. “A Longitudinal Analysis of the Antecedents of Organizational Commitment.” Academy of Management Journal 27.1 (1984): 95–112.
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Using a longitudinal design, the authors found that although job satisfaction predicted commitment, commitment was more likely to be an antecedent of job satisfaction. They argued that this is because job satisfaction is less stable and more rapidly formed than commitment and commitment, as a more stable attitude, is more likely to lead to satisfaction.
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Mathieu, J. E. “A Cross-level Non-recursive Model of the Antecedents of Organizational Commitment and Satisfaction.” Journal of Applied Psychology 76.5 (1991): 607–618.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.76.5.607 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The relationships between job satisfaction and organizational commitment were actively debated, whether commitment is an antecedent of satisfaction, satisfaction an antecedent of commitment, or whether the two are reciprocally related. The authors found that job satisfaction and organizational commitment were reciprocally related but that the influence of satisfaction on commitment was stronger.
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Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Bateman and Organ 1983; Motowidlo 1984; and Podsakoff, et al. 2000 maintain that job satisfaction is positively related to organizational citizenship behaviors with employees who are more satisfied with their job being more likely to engage in extra-role behaviors. This belief, however, has been criticized as simplistic by Moorman 1993 and Williams and Anderson 1991, which found that not all components of job satisfaction would predict organizational citizenship behaviors. Furthermore, Dalal 2005 suggests that the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior is weaker than previously thought. Spector, et al. 2010 concludes that the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior is tenuous and likely the result of measurement errors.

Bateman, T. S., and D. W. Organ. “Job Satisfaction and the Good Solider: The Relationship Between Affect and Employee Citizenship.” Academy of Management Journal 26.4 (1983): 587–595.
DOI: 10.2307/255908 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Using a cross-lagged design, the authors found that job satisfaction was strongly related to organizational citizenship behaviors.
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Dalal, R. S. “A Meta-analysis of the Relationship Between Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Counterproductive Work behavior.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90.6 (2005): 1241–1255.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1241 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Organizational citizenship behaviors and counterproductive work behaviors have been theorized to be affected by a similar set of antecedents such as job satisfaction. In a meta-analysis of thirty-eight studies, the authors found that job satisfaction is more strongly related to counterproductive work behaviors than to organizational citizenship behaviors. The authors concluded that job dissatisfaction is more likely to lead to negative behaviors than job satisfaction would lead to positive work behaviors.
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Moorman, R. H. “The influence of cognitive and affective based job satisfaction measures on the relationship between satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior.” Human Relations 46.6 (1993): 759–776.
DOI: 10.1177/001872679304600604 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The author argued that the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior is more complex than currently reported. Given that job satisfaction can be measured in either cognitive or affective terms, different measures of job satisfaction might yield different relationships with organizational citizenship behaviors. Moorman suggested and found evidence that cognitive based measures of job satisfaction were related more to citizenship behaviors than affective based measures.
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Motowidlo, S. J. “Does Job Satisfaction Lead to Consideration and Personal Sensitivity?” Academy of Management Journal 27.4 (1984): 910–915.
DOI: 10.2307/255889 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The author found that job satisfaction was positively related to extra-role behaviors such as consideration for others, interpersonal sensitivity, and kindness.
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Podsakoff, P. M, S. B. MacKenzie, J. B. Paine, and D. G. Bachrach. “Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature and Suggestions for Future Research.” Journal of Management 26.3 (2000): 513–563.
DOI: 10.1177/014920630002600307 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that global job satisfaction was moderately related to organizational citizenship behavior.
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Spector, P. E., J. A. Bauer, and S. Fox. “Measurement Artifacts in the Assessment of Counterproductive Work Behavior and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Do We Know What We Think We Know?” Journal of Applied Psychology 95.4 (2010): 781–790.
DOI: 10.1037/a0019477 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Although job satisfaction was commonly thought to be positively related to organizational citizenship behaviors and negatively related to counterproductive workplace behaviors, the authors found that this relationship is inconsistent across conditions when different measurement scales are used. The authors concluded that prior observed relationship between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors and counterproductive workplace behaviors could be due to measurement errors.
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Williams, L. J., and S. E. Anderson. “Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organization citizenship and in-role behavior.” Journal of Management 17.3 (1991): 601–617.
DOI: 10.1177/014920639101700305 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that cognitive components of job satisfaction predicted both Organizational Citizenship Behaviours targeted at Individuals (OCBI) and Organizational Citizenship Behaviours targeted at organizations (OCBO). Specifically, extrinsic component of job satisfaction cognition predict OCBO and intrinsic component of job satisfaction cognition predicted OCBI. Affective components of job satisfaction, however, predicted neither OCBI nor OCBO.
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Consequences of Job Satisfaction: Employee-Related Outcomes

The relationship between employees’ job satisfaction and outcomes related to their personal life has been the subject of considerable amount of research. Researchers are particularly interested in how employees’ job satisfaction, life satisfaction, subjective well-being, and marital outcomes are related to each other.

Life Satisfaction

In studying the relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction, two areas remain controversial. First, there is no consensus on the magnitude to which job and life satisfactions are related (Schmitt and Pulakos 1985). Some studies have suggested that both are strongly related at .44 (Tait, et al. 1989), while others have reported much more modest relationships (Near, et al. 1984). Second, while most researchers agreed that job and life satisfaction are related, few empirical studies have robustly tested the causal relationship between the two. Judge and Watanabe 1995 finds that life and job satisfaction were reciprocally related and concluded that both life and job satisfaction have mutual effects on each other.

Judge, T. A., and S. Watanabe. “Another Look at the Job Satisfaction-Life Satisfaction Relationship.” Journal of Applied Psychology 78.6 (1995): 939–948.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.78.6.939 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The study tested the causal nature of the relationship between job and life satisfaction. Using a cross-sectional and longitudinal method, the authors found that job and life satisfaction were significantly and reciprocally related. This relationship was relatively strong in the cross-sectional analysis. However, the same relationship was weaker when tested over a five-year period and life satisfaction was found to have a stronger impact on job satisfaction than job satisfaction on life satisfaction.
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Near, J. P., C. A. Smith, R. W. Rice, and R. G. Hunt. “A Comparison of Work and Non-Work Predictors of Life Satisfaction.” Academy of Management Journal 27.1 (1984): 184–190.
DOI: 10.2307/255966 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors tested how life satisfaction was predicted by various satisfaction variables. Found that job satisfaction explained about .03 of the variance in life satisfaction, significantly lower than those explained by family satisfaction.
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Schmitt, N., and E. D. Pulakos. “Predicting Job Satisfaction from Life Satisfaction: Is There a General Satisfaction Factor?” International Journal of Psychology 20 (1985): 155–167.
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Using five different samples, the authors found that life satisfaction predicted job satisfaction of employees in three samples and that job satisfaction predicted life satisfaction of retirees in two samples. The author concluded that satisfaction is relatively stable and predisposed individuals to interpret various situations favorably.
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Tait, M., M. Y. Padgett, and T. T. Baldwin. “Job and Life Satisfaction: A Re-evaluation of the Strength of the Relationship and Gender Effects as a Function of the Date of the Study.” Journal of Applied Psychology 74.3 (1989): 502–507.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.74.3.502 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors conducted a meta-analysis on the relationship between job and life satisfaction and concluded that both constructs were significantly related to each other. They also found gender differences in studies conducted before 1974; however, these differences disappear when studies after 1974 are examined. The authors suggested that this could be due to changes in gender work roles.
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Marital Outcomes

Compared to more than thirty years of research on job and life satisfaction, studies examining the relationship between job satisfaction and marital outcomes did not appear with much frequency until the early 21st century. Using daily diary methods, Judge and Ilies 2004 and Ilies, et al. 2009 have examined how daily satisfaction with work affected employees’ mood after work, as well as, marital satisfaction and work-family conflict.

Ilies, R., K. S. Wilson, and D. T. Wagner. “The Spill Over of Daily Job Satisfaction onto Employees’ Family Lives: The Facilitating Role of Work-Family Integration.” Academy of Management Journal 52.1 (2009): 87–102.
DOI: 10.5465/AMJ.2009.36461938 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Daily job satisfaction substantially predicted daily affect at home as well as marital satisfaction. The authors found that this relationship was more pronounced for individuals with stronger work-family integration (i.e., they experienced stronger daily affective spill over).
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Judge, T. A., and R. Ilies. “Affect and Job Satisfaction: A Study of Their Relationship at Work and at Home.” Journal of Applied Psychology 89.4 (2004): 661–673.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.661 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that although within-person job satisfaction predicted both positive and negative moods after work, the relationship was significant only for a positive mood. They also found that the effect of job satisfaction on mood was stronger for those who were high in the corresponding trait affectivity: moods for those with high trait affectivity were more sensitive to daily changes in job satisfaction.
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Subjective Well-Being

When individuals experience high levels of subjective well-being, they are thought to have experienced frequent positive affect, infrequent negative affect, and have a high degree of life satisfaction and domain satisfaction. Employment, being an important life domain, is predicted to have a direct impact on individuals’ subjective well-being. Judge and Locke 1993 and Judge and Hulin 1993 find that subjective well-being and job satisfaction had a reciprocal and spillover effect on each other and that both life and job satisfaction were affected by one’s affective disposition. Judge and Klinger 2007 adopts a different perspective and argued that instead of studying job satisfaction as an component or predictor of subjective well-being, job satisfaction is a form of work-related subjective well-being.

Judge, T. A., and C. Hulin. “Job Satisfaction as a Reflection of Disposition: A Multiple Source Causal Analysis.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 56 (1993): 388–421.
DOI: 10.1006/obhd.1993.1061 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The study highlighted some problems associated with dispositional approaches of job satisfaction and tested a causal model of the relationship between affective disposition, subjective well-being, and job satisfaction. The study found that affective disposition influences one’s subjective well-being, and in turn, subject well-being had a reciprocal relationship with job satisfaction.
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Judge, T. A., and R. Klinger. “Job Satisfaction: Subjective Well-being at Work.” In The Science of Subjective Well-being. Edited by M. Eid and R. Larsen, 393–413. Guilford, 2007.
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The authors argued that job satisfaction represents individual’s subjective well-being at work. Reviewed the job satisfaction literature and suggested 5 key future research areas on how job satisfaction can contribute to research on subjective well-being.
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Judge, T. A., and E. A. Locke. “Effect of Dysfunctional Thought Processes on Subjective Well-being and Job Satisfaction.” Journal of Applied Psychology 78.3 (1993): 475–490.
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.78.3.475 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that subjective well-being and job satisfaction had reciprocal effects on each other and suggested that this could be due to (1) a spillover effect where one generalized from one’s satisfaction with life domain to job domain, and vice versa, or when (2) individuals perceived jobs as an important part of their life and take into account their job satisfaction when evaluating their subjective well-being.
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Health

The relationships between work and employees health have gained increasing societal attention, largely because of employee compensation claims, as well as due to personal and organizational cost associated with work-related illness. The degree of satisfaction that employees have about their job been thought to be a reflection of the amount of stress they faced at work. In attempting to understand how job stressors, measured by low job satisfaction, affect health, Hauke, et al. 2011 finds evidence that low job satisfaction is related to multiple reports of musculoskeletal disorder such as neck and shoulder pain and Hoogendoorn, et al. 2002 finds that low job satisfaction is related to increased incidences of back pain and absenteeism related to back pain. Corroborating with that finding, Faragher, et al. 2005 finds that job satisfaction is strongly correlated with mental health and moderately correlated with physical health.

Faragher, E. B., M. Cass, and C. L. Cooper. “The Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Health: A Meta-analysis.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 62 (2005): 105–112.
DOI: 10.1136/oem.2002.006734 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Using meta-analytical methods, the authors use as an example the relationship between job satisfaction and mental/physical health. The authors found a large effect size for relationships between job satisfaction and mental health and a lower but significant effect size for relationships between job satisfaction and physical health.
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Hauke, A., J. Flintrop, E. Brun, and R. Rugulies. “The Impact of Work-Related Psychosocial Stressors on the Onset of Musculoskeletal Disorders in Specific Body Regions: A Review and Meta-analysis of 54 Longitudinal Studies.” Work and Stress 25.3 (2011): 243–256.
DOI: 10.1080/02678373.2011.614069 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that low job satisfaction has statistically significant low to medium effect size on musculoskeletal disorder.
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Hoogendoorn, W. E., P. M. Bonger, H. C. W. de Vet, G. A. M. Ariens, W. van Mechelen, and L. M Bouter. “High Physical Work Load and Low Job Satisfaction Increase the Risk of Sickness Absence Due to Low Back Pain: Result of a Prospective Cohort Study.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 59 (2002): 323–328.
DOI: 10.1136/oem.59.5.323 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
The authors found that low levels of job satisfaction is related to increased incidences of back pain and sickness related absenteeism.
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Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Job Satisfaction

Although theoretical frameworks of job satisfaction were largely developed by American researchers, there has been a general interest in how these frameworks can be applied in a global context. This section highlights several studies that examined job satisfaction in an international context. Researchers interested in cross-cultural job satisfaction research should refer to Judge, et al. 2001 for a comprehensive review on cross-cultural job satisfaction research. Using Hodstede’s cultural dimensions, Gelfand, et al. 2007 and Huang and Van de Vliert 2004 examined how differences in national cultures were related to employees’ job satisfaction.

Gelfand, M. J., M. Erez, and Z. Aycan. “Cross-cultural Organizational Behaviour.” Annual Review of Psychology 58 (2007): 479–514.
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085559 Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Focuses on reviewing cross-cultural organizational behavior research. Contains section on cross-cultural aspects of job satisfaction. Reviews studies that examined how individualism/collectivism and power distance influence job satisfaction.
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Huang, X., and E. Van de Vliert. “Job Level and National Culture as Joint Roots of Job Satisfaction.” Applied Psychology: An International Review 53.3 (2004): 329–348.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2004.00174.x Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »
Using data collected from 129,087 employees working in thirty-nine different countries in a multinational company, the authors found that the cultural dimension of individualism/ collectivism significantly moderates the relationship between job levels and job satisfaction.
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Judge, T. A., S. K. Parker, A. E. Colbert, D. Heller, and R. Ilies. “Job Satisfaction: A Cross-cultural Review.” In Handbook of Industrial, Work, and Organizational Psychology. Edited by N. Anderson, D. S. Ones, H. K. Sinangil, and C. Viswesvaran, 25–52. London: SAGE, 2001.
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Offers a comprehensive review on cross-cultural studies on job satisfaction. Some of the studies reviewed include cross-cultural predictors of job satisfaction and the applicability of job satisfaction models in international context. A useful chapter for anyone who is keen to understand cross-cultural research on job satisfaction and the applicability of “Western” job satisfaction theories in an “Eastern” context.
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