Management Charismatic and Innovative Team Leadership By and For Millennials
by
George Graen, Julio Canedo
  • LAST REVIEWED: 14 December 2022
  • LAST MODIFIED: 26 July 2017
  • DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199846740-0127

Introduction

This annotative bibliography is designed to bring the professor and student up to date on the research-based theories regarding “leadership.” We did this by reviewing the latest and most relevant research in management on leadership. This article is organized by (1) illustrating the two main designs of the 20th and 21st centuries and ways to transition; (2) introducing two schools of design thinking; (3) describing the convoy of processes from the initial attraction to early hiring experience, organizing experiences ending in retention; gosh, (4) hypothesizing identifying moderating or mediating workplace factors; and (5) citing recent global problems requiring leadership research. Setting the intellectual workbench for the latest views of the field of leadership within the research field of organizational behavior (OB), section 1 describes the two dominant forms of company purpose that provide the context for the force of interpersonal influence called “workplace leadership” (WL) (see Oxford Handbook of Leadership (Bauer and Erdogan 2015), cited under Handbooks and Edited Collections). These two basic designs for work organizations differ in terms of what they expect of employees. The one labeled “lean” hires people to perform as components of machine systems (see Toyota Culture: The Heart and Soul of the Toyota Way, cited under Employees as Machine Components). A newer one, labeled “innovative,” hires people to perform as creators of new products and services (see Research Report on Managerial Leadership Needs, Steiber 2011, cited under Employees as Innovators). Next, leadership research is presented on the process of transitioning (“How Google Sold Its Engineers on Management,” cited under Transitioning from Old to New). Section 2 describes two different approaches being employed to understand the innovative design for organizations. One is “design thinking” and views the entire leadership design and practice with its various levels of analysis and dynamics over critical incidents (see What Millennials Want from Work: How to Maximize Engagement in Today’s Workforce, cited under Design Thinking). The second is “complexity thinking” and attempts to research events of leadership as they emerge within the context of the ongoing organization (see “Towards Operationalizing Complexity Leadership: How Generative, Administrative and Community-Building Leadership Practices Enact Organizational Outcomes,” cited under Complexity Thinking). Section 3 describes the convoy of processes that have been researched as the development of talent into efficient and effective teams producing innovators (see “New Talent Strategy: Attract, Process, Educate, Empower, Engage and Retain the Best,” Graen and Grace 2015, cited under Research-Based Theories about the Context of 21st Century Management). These processes theoretically are employed in the order presented. This model assumes that leadership knowledge and skills are learned by earing and completing a kind of leadership in teams apprentice\ship from professional peers over time and projects (the use of coaching principles to foster employee engagement). In sum, present research is a basis for hypothesizing a multistep development process that proceeds with some overlap of processes generally as follows: attract the best talent, provide early hired experiences, design teams initially, coach and mentor, learn from peers, empower using networks, focus on retaining the best, and making sense of performance and critical incidents (see “New Talent Strategy: Attract, Process, Educate, Empower, Engage and Retain the Best,” Graen and Grace 2015). Section 4 elaborates on the characteristics of an organization, which are related to leadership outcomes and are hypothesized based on research to influence the development of workplace leadership in teams. These characteristics of organizations have been found replicable and related to leadership through meta-analyses published in the leading journals. Research is required to identify and order the major contributors to the success of developing workplace leadership in teams. This is a fruitful area for student research. Section 5 describes three areas requiring more research to understand how a culture of workplace partnership may be developed across different nations, different distances, and different ideas of team performance.

Research-Based Theories about the Context of 21st Century Management

Based on an intensive and extensive review of the global trends, we find that the intimately human collaborative relationship between individuals called “leadership in organizations” may have a new birth of personal choice. Specifically, we find new and promising conditions for leadership to free itself from the confines of lean companies by a diminished economic need to influence people to act like components of socio-technical-economic systems. The new economic need of companies in the 21st century is to create innovations by arranging conditions for people to do what they do best. Fortunately, this appears to be facilitated by workplace leadership properly organizing workplace experiences for the new employees (Gruber, et al. 2015). Workplace leadership drives the organization from top to bottom, inside and outside, from conception to the end of its life cycle. It is based on what people do best, namely, organize themselves according to specialization and division of technical-social collaboration with direction and purpose. Leadership involves a sense of concern for the health of one’s company with its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. This sense of proactive citizenship is hypothesized to be dynamic and create emotional attachments as teams work closely together and share the joy and pain of achievement, affiliation, and benevolence over time, space, and blizzards of threats and opportunities. Leadership is much more comprehensive than directing a successful project team with style and grace. It begins with the entrepreneur’s dreams of creating a new healthy company with a design to capture the interest of stakeholders. Once the design and resources are in place, a design for driving the company over its life cycle is implemented with the help of developed leadership-sharing partners. Leadership is hypothesized to be necessary for all companies and organizations due to the human habit of agreeing to collaborate fully on worthy enterprises that promise a worthwhile personal return. Engaging, empowering, and retaining the best people in these exchanges involves the leadership outcomes of attracting, hiring, organizing, and mentoring properly throughout the company. When improperly done, this is a failure of leadership in organizations. To date, we have faced leadership in a static, structured, hierarchical, and even bureaucratic manner. We have learned a lot from the traits, behavioral, situational, power, and other approaches to leadership (Riggio and Ono 2013). However, these approaches will not fit the Millennials’ functioning and will conflict with their views of organizational life (Graen and Grace 2015). The study of leadership seems to need an organic, life cycle approach. We need to look at the whole picture of individuals’ organizational life. Every part is necessary and all parts are interconnected. When some leadership outcomes go negative, tension is produced that may have negative consequences. The levels for analysis of leadership of companies are (1) the macro-level, which includes the design, purpose, strategies, and practices of the executive team as communicated to the (2) mid-levels of networks and teams, and (3) the microlevel individuals and stakeholders. For example, the macro-level leadership outcomes of company culture, corporate social responsibility, company scandal, and best place to work all may contribute to the mid-level attraction of the best leadership applicants and the retaining of the best contributors. These macro variables may also have secondary influence on the hiring and organizing of the best. Competitors understand that they must struggle to attract and retain their share of the best. At a middle level, the leadership outcomes of attraction, hiring experiences, and organizing contribute to the health of the company. Leadership is responsible for all aspects of developing and running the company (Kline, et al. 1994). Thus, workplace leadership development is the 21st-century challenge faced by leadership schools, departments, programs, and courses sequences. In sum, the workplace experience is hypothesized to be driven by the workplace leadership. Note: George Graen and Julio Canedo acknowledge and thank Joan Graen for shepherding on this project; Gail Fairhurst, Miriam Grace, Deborah Rupp, Terri Scandura, Talya Bauer, Bianca Beersma, and Diana Stone for their suggestions; Ricky Griffin, as series editor; and Adam Frese representing Oxford University Press. This work product is dedicated to progress imbedding the best of designing and operating 21st century organization.

  • Graen, G. B., and M. Grace. “New Talent Strategy: Attract, Process, Educate, Empower, Engage and Retain the Best.” SHRM-SIOP White Paper. Alexandria, VA: Society for Human Resource Management, 2015.

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    An analysis of the reality organizations are experiencing with the Millennial workforce and a proposal to attract, process, educate, empower, engage, and retain the best of this generation.

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  • Gruber, M., N. deLeon, G. George, and P. Thompson. “Managing by Design.” Academy of Management Journal 58 (2015): 1–7.

    DOI: 10.5465/amj.2015.4001Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Discussion of design thinking and its potential integration to the “workplace experience” (WX) as a means of shaping organizational practices to the needs of 21st-century Millennials.

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  • Kline, K. J., F. Dansereau, and R. J. Hall. “Level Issues in Theory Development, Data Collection and Analysis.” Academy of Management Review 19.4 (1994): 636–640.

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    Review of methodological issues created by three different types of levels of analysis.

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  • Riggio, R. E., and M. Ono. “Leadership.” In Oxford Bibliographies in Management. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

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    A summary of leadership approaches: traits, behavioral, situational and contingency, charismatic, transformational, relational, implicit, teams, ethical, authentic, dark side, followership, gender, culture, and multidisciplinary.

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Undergraduate Textbooks

These references are good sources to be used in leadership classes in undergraduate programs.

  • Humphrey, R. H. Effective Leadership: A Theory, Cases, and Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

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    A practical approach of leadership theories, including transformation, leader-member exchange (LMX), authentic, servant, etc. It looks at many facets of leadership in a comprehensive manner. Personal reflections and business examples included.

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  • Scandura, T. Essentials of Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2016.

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    A textbook preparing students for the 21st century by casting organizational behavior (OB) chapters as parts of company leadership experience. It includes theory, cases, assessments, and exercises intended to teach how organizational behavior can enhance performance at individual, group, and organizational levels.

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Graduate Textbooks

Graduate programs and courses may read tailored selections of more technical publications.

Handbooks and Edited Collections

These works provide a comprehensive revision of leadership literature.

  • Bauer, T. N., and B. Erdogan. The Oxford Handbook of Leader-Member Exchange. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.

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    Compendium of leader-member exchange (LMX) differentiation research before workplace leadership (WL). A comprehensive summary of research on LMX and its impact on individuals, teams, and organizations.

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  • Day, D. V., and J. Antonakis. The Nature of Leadership. 2d ed. Edited by D. Day and J. Antonakis. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2012.

    DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199928309.013.0022Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Collection of leadership theories under the lean model. It describes the science and nature of leadership, its major schools, domains, and potential future developments.

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  • Rumsey, M. G. Oxford Handbook of Leadership. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

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    A collection of basic reviews by leadership gurus of the 20th century, discussing the attributes, training, development, context, dynamics, and effectiveness of company leaders. (Many more citations for handbooks; see references.)

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Journals

The journals listed in this section are a good source of scientific theoretical and empirical research and the practical implications of such research.

Journals on Leadership and Human Behavior in Organizations

These journals specialize in leadership and human behavior in organizational settings.

Journals on Organizational Functioning

The following journals deal with a broad spectrum of issues that impact organizations.

Annotated Bibliography and Leadership Research

This annotated bibliography discusses (1) Company Leadership Designs, (2) New Leadership Thinking, (3) Hypothesized Development Process for Workplace Leadership in Teams, (4) Company Characteristics Hypothesized to Enhance or Truncate the Development of Workplace Leadership, and (5) Hypothesized Global Workplace Leadership Improvements.

Company Leadership Designs

Companies are designed to achieve purpose(s), and the formal architectural design specifies the dedicated objective(s) of human and capital resources. Company leadership networks mold human actions in ways required by their design. The present mature design, called “lean design,” trains and rewards employees to act as dependable components of complex productive systems. The new design that is quickly replacing the rapidly maturing lean design is called “innovative” and establishes the conditions for employees to innovate and create new products and services. In the early 21st century, the human components in lean designs are being replaced by technology (in many cases entire plants are operated without human intervention). Fortunately, many all-new companies are operating successfully with innovative designs (Graen and Grace 2015, cited under Research-Based Theories about the Context of 21st Century Management). Many characteristics of the two designs are described in these subsections, and methods for moving to the newer designs are being suggested based on research.

Employees as Machine Components

What is it? The fundamental design question is, “What if we designed the perfect system for reducing all waste and producing the highest quality?” The answer to this question requires finding the best conditions under which the question is answered. For example, Toyota’s lean designs included the following characteristics: complete integration of “just in time” and “quality first” into all parts, all assembly, and all sales and service networks; key suppliers financiers, distribution, sales, service, and labor union as alliance partners; employees as fully engaged multi-skilled members of the “Toyota clan”; team guardians as older siblings and coordinators; transparent operations showing trust with the entire clan; proactive problem finding and solving by overlapping quality groups; overlapping team structure with team guardians as linking-pins; teams at all levels housed in their own unique “cocoon” for security, problem solving, and retention; and bottom-up flows of information for problem solving with focus on doing everything right the first time and documenting continuous improvement (Graen and Schiemann 2013). How does it work? When all of these characteristics are fully integrated into a socio-technical-economic system designed by engineers, showing high-quality and low-cost products and services are experienced by the stakeholders. Unfortunately, this so-called lean design does not work for creating marketable innovations due to lack of flexibility and unattractiveness to the workforce.csd v`

  • Ker, J. I., Y. Wang, M. N. Hajli, J. Song, and C. W. Ker. “Deploying Lean in Healthcare: Evaluating Information Technology Effectiveness in US Hospital Pharmacies.” International Journal of Information Management 34 (2014): 556–560.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2014.03.003Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Description of applications of lean organization in health care. This case study evaluates the role of technology on the distribution of medications in US hospitals. By improving time of processing and cost, technology leads to increased operational performance.

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  • Liker, J. K., and M. Hoseus. Toyota Culture: The Heart and Soul of the Toyota Way. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008.

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    Current description of the birthplace cultures. It explains the “lean system,” which transformed the workplace experience from wasteful and labor intensive to efficient and automated.

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  • Ohno, T. Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production. Portland, OR: Productivity, 1988.

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    Early description of lean organization. This analysis of Toyota’s attempts to lean production explains how the company improved its manufacturing systems. Just-in-time and lean manufacturing improved its efficiency by eliminating waste.

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  • Peterson, J. “Defining Lean Production: Some Conceptual and Practical Issues.” TQM Journal 21 (2009): 127–142.

    DOI: 10.1108/17542730910938137Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Explores the different definitions of lean production and its goals and methods of investigation. There was no consensus on the definition and characteristics associated with concept. These differences lead to theoretical and empirical disagreements among investigators of the topic.

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  • Radnor, Z., and G. Bucci. Analysis of Lean Implementation in UK Business Schools and Universities. London: Association of Business Schools, 2011.

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    Applications of lean design in business schools in United Kingdom. Using a case study approach, implementation of lean systems, as a consequence of government cuts, is analyzed in five higher education organizations in England, Scotland, and Wales.

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Employees as Innovators

What is it? The question of this design is, “What if we designed the best system for maximizing the development of only previously dreamed innovations to delight new customers?” The answer to this question is a work in progress, but Silicon Valleys all over the globe are designing flexible companies to provide new product team’s extreme flexibility with proper resources and time. In fact, the subcontractor relationship tends to be popular. How does it work? According to Steiber 2011, company culture plays a major role in attracting and retaining the best young innovators. Steiber lists the following as identifying characteristics of such a company’s design: an innovative and flexible culture and management system that replaces rules with guidelines, and commands with peer-oriented negotiating among associates across pay levels; a company strategy that values employees and customers equally and demonstrates that belief by selecting the best and treating those employees as main contributors by providing proper career opportunities and rewards, and trusting them with inside information; encouraging and training managers at all levels to work with individuals in appropriate ways by tailoring, mentoring, and coaching activities and clearing away impediments; balancing the emphasis on innovation and operational excellence by fostering the development of subcultures that are equally valued; extending strategic networks for externally developed technical innovations, forming cooperative alliances with leading universities/researchers, and investing in new technologies and ventures; designing collaborative communities of professional peers learning from each other; and overall emphasis on having fun while serving the greater good. How does it work? Company top leadership, including human resource, finance, and engineering designers, participates in designing the entire company, hiring the best-trained, highest intelligent, most passionate, and leadership-team players, providing them with the professionals, resources, and time. Then, all leaders work to make the workplace a relaxed, creative, and fun place.

Transitioning from Old to New

What is it? Moving from a lean, quality-first design to a flexible, innovation-designed company requires that engineers and the professionals be convinced that machine systems have important limitations and the best employees possess creative powers for developing innovations with commercial value based on customer experience. How does it work? Leadership networks are persuaded to engage in redesigning processes and experience through the power of role-making their workplace into a safe and stimulating space supporting innovative team collaboration.

  • Celaschi, F., M. Celi, and L. M. Garcia. “The Extended Value of Design: An Advanced Design Perspective.” Design Management Journal 6 (2011): 6–15.

    DOI: 10.1111/j.1948-7177.2011.00024.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A discussion of the value design can provide by developing instruments and practices. The design process contributes to this creation of value. Some cases illustrate such contributions.

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  • Cooperrider, D. “Turning Point: Managing-as-Designing in an Era of Massive Innovation; A Call for Design-Inspired Corporate Citizenship.” Journal of Corporate Citizenship 37 (2010): 24–33.

    DOI: 10.9774/GLEAF.4700.2010.sp.00004Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A proposal for leaders and scholars in the corporate citizenship domain to become innovators by using design thinking.

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  • Garvin, D. A. “How Google Sold Its Engineers on Management.” Harvard Business Review (December 2013): 71–82.

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    Report on a case study of making the transition. What Google did to sell its highly skilled, smart engineers the idea that management is beneficial for the organization and be able to actually manage the company.

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  • Junginger, S. “A Different Role for Human-Centered Design within the Organization.” Paper presented at the 6th Annual Conference of the European Academy of Design held in Bremen, Germany, 29–31 March 2005.

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    Examples of three large organizations that engaged in design inquiries. An attempt to change the idea that design is for graphic designers and to embrace the more enriching, radical idea of design as a driver of innovation.

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  • Nagji, B., and G. Tuff. “Managing Your Innovation Portfolio.” Harvard Business Review (May 2012): 5–12.

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    An analysis of patterns of resources allocated to innovation, adjacent efforts, and transformation initiatives in companies in the industrial, technology, and consumer goods sectors.

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  • Shipper, F., and C. C. Manz. “Shared Leadership: The Do’s and Don’ts in Shared Entrepreneurship Enterprises.” In Shared Entrepreneurship: A Path to Engaged Employee Ownership. Edited by Frank Shipper, 27–42. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.

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    Description of the overall approach. Leadership viewed as a collaborative, dynamic, two-way process, as opposed to a top-down activity.

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  • Weer, C. H., M. S. DeRenzo, and F. M. Shipper. “A Holistic View of Employee Coaching: Longitudinal Investigation of the Impact of Facilitative and Pressure-Based Coaching on Team Effectiveness.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science (2015).

    DOI: 10.1177/0021886315594007Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Description of coach as change agent, using regulatory focus theory and including a holistic perspective. An analysis of team effectiveness contrasting facilitative versus pressure-based coaching over a fifty-four-month period.

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New Leadership Thinking

Two different ways of thinking about the new leadership thinking have been offered, namely, “workplace leadership” (WL) and “complexity.” WL was derived from recent major advances in understanding the mysteries of human experience in the workplace. In contrast, complexity was derived from the recent improvement in general systems theory.

Design Thinking

What is it? The design thinking framework takes a CEO perspective and defines leadership in organizations as the behavior of teams, networks, and companies that demonstrate collaborative and organized, shared responsibility for resolving storms of critical incidents for the common good. Leadership drivers may be any salient state of the company from overall purpose and design to trust and respect of fellow team members. Because developed leadership becomes powerful human capital, the possession of such leadership potential can make the difference between success and failure of a company. Finally, leadership processes are designed to enhance the conditions likely to drive new hires to become long-term developers in innovations for everything. How does it work? Innovative design teams are to work closely with team members, heads, coaches, and managers to identify the most powerful combination of drivers in developing leadership potential. After employing design tools, methods of role making, and testing a number of alternatives, the best contingency procedures are fine-tuned in practice. All realistic exempt position descriptions under the workplace leadership theory design assumes a dimension of responsibility for and authority to (1) help coworker share leadership and develop resource networks; (2) help attract, contract, and retain talent, business, and other stakeholders’ support; and (3) defend and overcome critical incidents. These procedures can be used for all levels and functions of the life cycles of careers and organizations.

  • Bolman, L. G., and T. E. Deal. “Battles and Beliefs: Rethinking the Roles of Today’s Leaders.” Leadership in Action 29 (2009): 14–18.

    DOI: 10.1002/lia.1306Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Proposes two leadership frameworks (wizard and warrior) as a leadership alternative to typical approaches (caregiver and analyst).

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  • Charnley, F., M. Lemon, and S. Evans. “Exploring the Process of Whole System Design.” Design Studies 32 (2010): 156–179.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.destud.2010.08.002Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Latest description of whole system design studies to sustainable innovative design. By using case studies, it presents a framework of factors that help the identification of relations between parts that can help improve the functioning of the whole system.

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  • Deal, J., and A. Levenson. What Millennials Want from Work: How to Maximize Engagement in Today’s Workforce. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2016.

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    First to describe in detail the largest generational investigation ever on the innovation generation—the Millennials.

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  • Grace, M. “What Is a Game-Changing Design?” In Predator’s Game-Changing Designs. Edited by G. B. Graen and J. A. Graen, 1–18. Charlotte, NC: Information Age, 2009.

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    Brief introduction to design thinking with an emphasis on strategies for change.

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  • Graen, G. B., and M. Grace. “Positive Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Designing for Tech-Savvy, Optimistic, and Purposeful Millennial Professional’s Company Cultures.” Industrial and Organizational Psychology 8 (2015): 395–408.

    DOI: 10.1017/iop.2015.57Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    First to present a holistic identification of unique development of a Millennial generation whose members expect workplace leadership of the 21st century.

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Complexity Thinking

What is it? Leadership is a particular pattern of human organizing. Leaders implement an action mission that cannot be performed by routine processes. Leadership happens as a unique event and must be studied as a pattern of big data analysis. Focus is on the events that proceed, are concurrent, and remain after the action. These conditions are called a “complete adaptive system” when they resolve critical incidents. How does it work? Research questions explored by big data analytics are like the following: When a leadership incident happens, what mechanisms facilitate the organizing? What are the dynamics within the larger organization? What dynamics tend to be effective in reducing stress on the population of interest? Problems are encountered when only postmortem recalls are available.

  • Hazy, J. K., J. A. Goldstein, and B. B. Lichtenstein. Complex Systems Leadership Theory: New Perspectives from Complexity Science on Social and Organizational Effectiveness. Mansfield, MA: ISCE, 2007.

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    Description of complexity theory and the role of leadership in the early 21st century’s highly interconnected companies.

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  • Hazy, J. K., and M. Uhl-Bien. “Towards Operationalizing Complexity Leadership: How Generative, Administrative and Community-Building Leadership Practices Enact Organizational Outcomes.” Leadership 11.1 (2013): 79–104.

    DOI: 10.1177/1742715013511483Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Description of application of complexity designs. An analysis of theoretical and empirical research on complexity that has produced insights for organizations to adapt and improve.

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  • Lord, R. G., J. E. Dinh, and E. L. Hoffman. “A Quantum Approach to Time and Organizational Change.” Academy of Management Review 40 (2015): 263–290.

    DOI: 10.5465/amr.2013.0273Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A model of leadership based on quantum theory as a different approach to complexity.

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  • Morgeson, F. P., T. R. Mitchell, and D. Lin. “Event System Theory: An Event-Oriented Approach to Organizational Sciences.” Academy of Management Review 40.4 (2015): 515–537.

    DOI: 10.5465/amr.2012.0099Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A model for developing specific propositions articulating the interplay among event strength and temporal process relating to leadership.

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  • Spisak, B. R., M. J. O’Brien, N. Nicholson, and M. van Vugt. “NICHE Construction and the Evaluation of Leadership.” Academy of Management Review 40 (2015): 291–306.

    DOI: 10.5465/amr.2013.0157Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A description of the process of entrepreneur’s growth from partyer with a trusted few to leader of employees.

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  • Uhl-Bien, M., R. Marion, and B. McKelvey. “Complexity Leadership Theory: Shifting Leadership from the Industrial Age to the Knowledge Era.” Leadership Quarterly 18 (2007): 298–318.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Argument for a transition. A framework for the study of complexity leadership theory based on complexity science and focused on learning, creativity, and adaptation.

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  • Voronov, M., and L. Yorks. “Did You Notice That?” Academy of Management Review 40.4 (2015): 563–586.

    DOI: 10.5465/amr.2013.0152Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A framework to analyze differences in people that contribute to both blockages and facilitators of organizational change.

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Hypothesized Development Process for Workplace Leadership in Teams

Developing a workplace leadership (WL) is hypothesized to be limited by the experienced outcroppings of the company of talented hires joining the company. These experiences are shared both inside and outside of the company—especially with mobile networking. Using data derived from design analytics during the attraction and early hiring processes, the organizing process includes sub-processing (role making) initial design of team to a more engaging and empowering arrangement directed at coping with the dynamic and unannounced critical incidents and recovering to normal functioning. Organizing is the final design whose effectiveness depends on engagement and empowerment negotiations. This circle of procedures advances from designing the matching significant functions and resources with available talent. Resulting design next considers the engaging match of talent to responsibility and empowerment to functions. After repeated cycles with team performance simulation of various critical incidents, a dynamic and flexible design is accepted until it is replaced by a more effective one.

Attraction of the Best Talent

What is it? Identifying the design of the organization that attracts the interest of the most qualified talent is fundamental to hiring them. How does it work? Innovation design teams investigate big data from inside and other companies to target the most appropriate talent sources and develop designs to become an attractive prototype. Such designs include proper courting and deal with closing emotional interactions.

  • Catanzaro, D., H. Moore, and T. Marshall. “The Impact of Organizational Culture on Attraction and Recruitment of Job Applicants.” Journal of Business and Psychology 25 (2010): 649–662.

    DOI: 10.1007/s10869-010-9179-0Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Organizational culture and gender interact to influence applicants’ attraction. Men were more willing than women to apply to a competitive organization; both men and women were more willing to apply for the supportive organization, even when salaries were lower.

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  • Lin, H. “The Impact of Company-Dependent and Company-Independent Information Sources on Organizational Attractiveness Perceptions.” Journal of Management Development 34 (2015): 941–959.

    DOI: 10.1108/JMD-12-2013-0161Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Job seekers’ perceptions of usefulness and ease of use of recruitment websites (company controlled) and social influence factors (company not controlled) affect organizational attractiveness.

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  • Walker, J. H., H. S. Field, W. F. Giles, J. B. Bernerth, and J. C. Short. “So What Do You Think of the Organization? A Contextual Priming Explanation of Recruitment Web Site Characteristics as Antecedents of Job Seekers’ Organizational Image Perceptions.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 114 (2011): 165–178.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.11.004Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Websites that are technologically advanced and depict racially diverse organizational members had a positive influence on the perception that participants had of the organization. Applicants’ familiarity with the organization tempered this relation.

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Early Hired Experience

What is it? Once signed, newly hired are made to feel like part of the corporate family by tender loving care with respect and understanding. These experiences are hypothesized to properly prepare the new colleagues to seek to become workplace leaders. How does it work? Innovation design teams study proper programs to welcome the new talent and introduce them as potential insiders and major contributors to a worthy mission.

  • Cable, D. M., F. Gino, and B. R. Staats. “Reinventing Employee Onboarding.” MIT Sloan Management Review 54 (2013): 23–29.

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    By encouraging new employees to use their strengths at work, new incumbents become more engaged, more connected with colleagues, and more likely to stay. The idea is to shape the onboarding process to the individual’s identity, as opposed to expose them to a standardized process.

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  • Dai, G. R., K. P. de Meuse, and D. Gaeddert. “Onboarding Externally Hired Executives: Avoiding Derailment—Accelerating Contribution.” Journal of Management and Organization 17 (2011): 165–178.

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    Effective onboarding of executives externally hired should be tailored to the organization and the individual to increase the likelihood of the executive’s success.

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  • Ferri-Reed, J. “Onboarding Strategies to Supercharge Millennial Employees.” Journal of Quality and Participation 36 (2013): 32–33.

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    Millennials are technologically savvy, hungry for feedback, collaborative, extremely self-confident, philanthropical, and have a work-to-live mentality. As a consequence, Millennials’ onboarding programs need to (1) include the new hires in the design of their own onboarding, (2) make it visual, (3) keep it brief, (4) automate it, (5) make it interactive, (6) put them to work in groups, (7) be connected to specific features of their jobs, and (8) provide an opportunity to assess them.

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  • Johnson, M., and M. Senges. “Learning to Be a Programmer in a Complex Organization: A Case Study on Practice-Based Learning during the Onboarding Process at Google.” Journal of Workplace Learning 22 (2010): 180–194.

    DOI: 10.1108/13665621011028620Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Google empowers new programmers using coding practices and maximizing peer learning and collaboration. This reduces isolation and increases collegiality, morale, and job satisfaction.

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Organizing Design

What is it? First published by Graen in Dunnette’s two industrial and organizational handbooks (1976, 1994), the theory is that both team ladder and embers actively negotiate about what they do best and their emotionally and technical preferred roles. The objective is to find the strongest and most resilient team, given resources and responsibilities. After discussions and negotiations, alternative roles are tested and refined based on team experience dealing with both standard and critical incidents. After a period of testing, with the advice of the coaches, specialists are identified who are emotionally prepared to go beyond sustaining the function as a leadership team to deal with critical issues. As the team matures, participants may move from a lower psychological risk and reward group to a higher group and the reverse depend on outside responsibilities. In the twenty-three-year management process longitudinal study, role making predicted speed of promotion throughout. This theory was renamed “job crafting” thirty-five years later, but the new process does not allow an active self-designing process of teams as does the original role making. How does it work? Teams that seek solidarity and use role making to find the best proactive use of available talent and resources perform at a higher level of rationality and have more emotional engagement when critical incidents are taken into account. Flexibility, trust, and respect are required at the team level to successfully overcome unexpected disruptions of normal workplace experience.

Coaching Leadership in Teams and Mentoring Individuals

What is it? Teams often profit by co-constructing leadership alliances with the team head and between team players. Unique strategic alliances require the intervention of team coaches to augment the efforts of team heads and players in fully enclosing the leadership network of a team. How does it work? Coaches instruct teams on the method of co-constructing to unique strategic alliances to secure commitment to each other and to their identifying team. Coaches gather 360-degree feedback on the progress of building a mutually self-identifying and charismatically performing team and work to keep all members on the proper cycle of growth and achievement at both the individual and team levels. Research shows that the job of personally co-constructing the team’s interpersonal leadership network appears to be one job too many for most heads of teams. Executive team coaches should be trained properly to adequately perform this team network function in a professionally ethical, trustworthy, and successful manner.

  • Chamorro-Premuzic, T. “How to Use 360 Degree Feedback for Executive Coaching.” Forbes, 9 February 2017.

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    An application of executive team coaches to enhance the co-construction of complete, unique, strategic alliances in executive teams.

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  • Daloz, L. A. Mentor: Guiding the Journey of Adult Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999.

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    Original thinking on mentoring in organizations, as a way to transform learning, and focused on adult learning and development.

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  • Ely, K., L. A. Boyce, J. K. Nelson, S. J. Zaccaro, G. Hernez-Broome, and W. Whyman. “Evaluating Leadership Coaching: A Review and Integrated Framework.” Leadership Quarterly 21 (2010): 585–599.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.06.003Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An integrated framework of coaching evaluation, based on reviews of academics and practitioners.

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  • Ensher, E. A., C. Thomas, and S. E. Murphy. “Comparison of Traditional, Step-Ahead, and Peer Mentoring on Protégés’ Support, Satisfaction, and Perceptions of Career Success: A Social Exchange Perspective.” Journal of Business and Psychology 15 (2001): 419–438.

    DOI: 10.1023/A:1007870600459Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An application of social exchange theory to analyze the effectiveness of different types of mentorship. Role model, reciprocity, and vocational support were associated with satisfaction with the mentor.

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  • Gaddis, B. H., and J. L. Foster. “Meta-analysis of Dark Side Personality Characteristics and Critical Work Behaviors among Leaders across the Globe: Findings and Implications for Leadership Development and Executive Coaching.” Applied Psychology 64 (2015): 25–54.

    DOI: 10.1111/apps.12017Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Critical work behaviors of leaders across the globe can be predicted by scores on dark side personality measures.

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  • Hackman, J. R. Collaborative Intelligence: Using Teams to Social Hard Problems. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2011.

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    Examples of extremely difficult team decisions.

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  • Kram, K. E. “Phases of the Mentor Relationship.” Academy of Management Journal 26 (1983): 608–625.

    DOI: 10.2307/255910Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Original thinking on the mentoring structure and process. Conceptual model of the process followed on the development of the mentor relationship.

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  • Ladegard, G., and S. Gjerde. “Leadership Coaching, Leader Role-Efficacy, and Trust in Subordinates: A Mixed Method Study Assessing Leadership Coaching as a Leadership Development Tool.” Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014): 631–646.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.02.002Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An exploratory study, using qualitative and quantitative methods to assess coaching as a leadership development tool.

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  • Manfred, F. R. “Leadership Group Coaching in Action: The Zen of Creating High Performance Teams.” Academy of Management Executive 19 (2005): 61–76.

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    The benefits of group leadership coaching: organizational results and durable changes, based on trust, conflict resolution, commitment, and accountability.

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  • Sperry, L. “Executive Coaching and Leadership Assessment: Past, Present, and Future.” Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research 65 (2013): 284–288.

    DOI: 10.1037/a0035453Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A description of executive coaching and its future in consulting psychology.

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  • Witherspoon, R. “Double-Loop Coaching for Leadership Development.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 50 (2014): 261–283.

    DOI: 10.1177/0021886313510032Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Exploration of a coaching approach designed to help leaders learn about how they think in action and how this learning can help them improve.

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Learning Leadership

What is it? Team members seek to do what they do best, but sometimes this is not what is best for the team. In the case, the human resource (HR) coach may suggest ways to accommodate both by instructing and facilitating leadership apprenticeship activities. The objective is to learn new ways to achieve greater engagement and performance as well as strengthen the team. How does it work? The team is designed to be flexible and change the way operations are done as necessary with minimal disruption of processing. Personal engagement in the team and the organization are a responsibility of the entire team, and the coach training and apprenticeships and engagement are related to positive performance and longer retention.

  • Crabb, S. “The Use of Coaching Principles to Foster Employee Engagement.” Coaching Psychologist 7 (2011): 27–34.

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    Using thematic analysis, three individual level drivers that contribute to learning and engagement are identified: focusing strengths, managing emotions, and aligning purpose.

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  • Gottfredson, R. K., and H. Aguinis. “Leadership Behaviors and Follower Performance: Deductive and Inductive Examination of Theoretical Rationales and Underlying Mechanisms.” Journal of Organizational Behavior (2016).

    DOI: 10.11002/job.2152Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    First to confirm the best available descriptive model of structure equations for the charismatic leadership developmental process in teams: (1) create leader-member exchange–unique strategic alliance (LMX-USA) between leader and each follower, (2) use incentives (transformational discussions, contingent rewards, or consideration and structuring, (3) receive LMX contracts results.

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  • Harter, J. K., F. L. Schmidt, and T. L. Hayes. “Business-Unit-Level Relationship between Employee Satisfaction Employee Engagement, and Business Outcomes: A Meta-analysis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (2012): 268–279.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.2.268Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Demonstrated strong relations between unit-level employee satisfaction-engagement and customer satisfaction, productivity, profit, employee turnover, and accidents.

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  • Kozlowski, S. W. J., S. Mak, and G. T. Chao. “Team-Centric Leadership: An Integrative Review.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 3 (2016): 21–54.

    DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-041015-062429Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Comprehensive review by a small group of psychology scholars on the methods of current leadership in teams. First to point the critical finding that changes most popular leadership theories into theories of motivational incentives, for example, transformational, transactional, contingency, and consideration and initiation of structure.

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  • Song, J. H., D. H. Lim, I. G. Kang, and W. Kim. “Team Performance in Learning Organizations: Mediating Effect of Employee Engagement.” Learning Organization 21 (2014): 290–309.

    DOI: 10.1108/TLO-07-2012-0049Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An empirical study providing evidence for the relations among team performance, individuallearning, and employee engagement.

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  • Wu, N., A. Donovan, J. Gordon, and J. Sheasby. Engaging and Empowering Millennials: A Follow-Up to PwC’s Next Generation Global Generation Study. New York: PwC, 2014.

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    Suggested leadership (master-apprentice interactions) may enhance the workplace experience of Millennials.

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Identifying Favoritism

What is it? Teammates may be confronted by emerging issues that threaten to divide the group into opposing factions based on perceived leader favoritism. How does it work? Teammates are questioned regarding leader behavior that may show favoritism for their subgroup. Issues may be anything that polarized the team. Team coaches ask these questions and work to render them irrelevant to the team mission. The issue may be older-younger, male-female, or any demographic or belief.

Empowering via Networks

What is it? After teams have recruited their limit of leadership partners inside, they continue the process with those more distant, but with whom they are functionally interdependent. Networks have been credited with increased apprentice-type learning, adaptability, crisis response capacity, organizational resilience, and problem solving. Managers in organizations increasingly recognize the importance of mutual apprentice-peer networks near, distant, and across their organizational boundaries, but they seldom are planned according to a comprehensive design. How does it work? Fundamental to the process is the discovery of needed knowledge, skill sets, and mutual apprentice-peer patterns, and comparison of these ideals with the existing network. By removing barriers to learning interactions and guiding members’ participation in leadership processes, managers can foster the emergence of new team and network growth. Ideally, strategic network development, should be included in the design, assessment, organizing, and network development processes.

  • Gargiulo, M., and M. Benassi. “Trapped in Your Own Net? Network Cohesion, Structural Holes, and the Adaptation of Social Capital.” Organization Science 11 (2000): 183–196.

    DOI: 10.1287/orsc.11.2.183.12514Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An analysis of the tension created by two opposite views on how networks create social capital: network closure and structural whole theory.

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  • Gaudeul, A., and C. Giannetti. “The Role of Reciprocation in Social Network Formation, with an Application to LiveJournal.” Social Networks 35 (2013): 317–330.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.socnet.2013.03.003Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An exploration of the role of reciprocation in the formation of individuals’ social network.

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  • Gibbons, D. E., and S. L. Grover. “Network Factors in Leader-Member Relationships.” In Sharing Network Leadership. LMX Leadership 4. Edited by George Graen, 63–93. Greenwich, CT: Information Age, 2006.

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    Reviews network research related to work relationship.

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  • Krackhardt, D., and J. R. Hanson. “Informal Networks: The Company behind the Chart.” Harvard Business Review (July–August 1993): 104–111.

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    Analysis of the informal networks in organizations and how they support organizational functioning.

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  • Schreiber, C., and K. Carley. “Leadership Style as an Enabler of Organizational Complex Functioning.” Emergence: Complexity and Organization 8 (2006): 45–60.

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    Using dynamic network analysis, an analysis of leadership style as an enabler of complex functioning.

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  • Sparrowe, R. T., and R. C. Liden. “Two Routes to Influence: Integrating Leader-Member Exchange and Social Network Perspectives.” Administrative Science Quarterly 50 (2005): 505–535.

    DOI: 10.2189/asqu.50.4.505Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Study reveals team leaders facilitating distant apprentice-like partnerships with personal competence network.

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Retaining the Best

What is it? With our focus on workplace experience, the best professionals will remain with their company when the characteristics of the organization that attracted them are maintained and enriched consistently. How does it work? Leaders in organizations at all levels need to keep the experience meaningful by a continuous flow of learning challenges and achievement for the team and the individuals. Teams monitor the engagement of their members and help them to maintain their passion for their work and sense of trustworthiness and support by their team and network leadership partners.

Actual Performance

What is it? Evaluation of the workplace leadership is targeted at attracting, hiring, coaching, engaging, empowering, and retaining the best of teams and networks relative to the competition. Evaluating team leadership development involves mastering the competence to identify and encourage personal and professional growth potential in apprentices, coaching them how to organize a team within a larger context of teams, such that team resources grow inside and from outside in, and are continually engaging and empowering those who accept the risks and rewards of team leadership. Performance on these processes during development may be focused on extra-teamwork in anticipating and helping to overcome critical incidents of threats and achieve critical opportunities. How does it work? In addition to these developmental activities, those who show progress in teams, networks, and company are compensated by continuous growth opportunities and the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards of speed of promotion supported by workplace leadership. Overall, team network or company performance is evaluated based on flexibly on resolving critical incidents and getting back to standard routine of helping the company.

  • Campbell, J. P., and B. M. Wiernik. “The Modeling and Assessment of Work Performance.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 2 (2015): 47–74.

    DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111427Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    US Bureau of Labor Statistics’ (BLS) classification of job duties that employs the lean taxonomy of independent and stable jobs. Flexibility to overcome critical incidents over time is not included to enhance regulation by BLS and IRS.

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  • Day, D. V., and L. Dragoni. “Leadership Development: An Outcome Oriented Review Based on Time and Levels of Analyses.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 2 (2015): 133–156.

    DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111328Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A review of research on the development of team leadership strength focusing on both the individual and team levels. It does not consider the influences of the company culture and reputation on developing a coordination between teams and company culture.

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  • DeRue, D. S., J. D. Nahngong, J. R. Hollenbeck, and K. Workman. “A Quasi-experimental Study of After Event Reviews and Leadership Development.” Journal of Applied Psychology 97 (2012): 997–1015.

    DOI: 10.1037/a0028244Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A different approach to feedback and team development. After-event reviews had a positive relation with leadership development. Conscientiousness, openness to experience, and emotional stability enhanced such relation.

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  • Gottfredson, R. K., and H. Aguinis. “Leadership Behaviors and Follower Performance: Deductive and Inductive Examination of Theoretical Rationales and Underlying Mechanisms.” Journal of Organizational Behavior (2016).

    DOI: 10.11002/job.2152Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Breakthrough analysis of structural equation modeling of thirty-five meta-analyses into the best fitting prediction of leader behavior followed by performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Results show that LMX-7 is the necessary precondition before the incentive of consideration and initiation of structure, or transformational on contingent rewards may be followed by gains in performance and OCB. Also, first to estimate company outcomes from leadership improvement.

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  • Graen, G. B., and W. Schiemann. “Leadership-Motivated Excellence Theory: An Extension of LMX.” Journal of Managerial Psychology 28 (2013): 452–469.

    DOI: 10.1108/JMP-11-2012-0351Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Introduced new theory of leadership-motivated excellence (LMX-TEAM) that included a unique perspective on team leadership strength as a function of the dyadic agreement on the six dimensions of all pairs of team players. Most purchased reprints in Journal of Management Psychology’s history.

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  • Mascolo, M. F., and K. W. Fischer. “The Dynamic Development of Thinking, Feeling, and Acting over the Life Span.” In The Handbook of Life-Span Development. Edited by K. L. Fingerman, C. A. Berg, J. Smith, and T. C. Antonucci, 113–161. New York: Springer, 2011.

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    A review of natural life cycle changing limits of competence including early growth and later decline. Description of baseline changes over the life cycle.

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Critical Incidents Performance

What is it? A critical incident is any event outside of the routine of business as usual that threatens to disrupt sustaining performance with exceptional damage or benefit to the company. It is intersubjectively verified before, during, or after its occurrence and is described in detail by those involved. These incidents are analyzed as big data learning opportunities by teams who are rewarded for their damage control, capitalizing on opportunities and documentation. Measures of team performance in resolving emergency and returning to routine represent the best for evaluating the power of team, network, or company. How does it work? Critical incidents are handled by the leadership group in teams who have been specially coached to become engaged, empowered, and supported to go in harm’s way. After acceptable resolutions are found by the team, they are incorporated into the living design of operations. Teams, networks, and companies are built to successfully deal with critical incidents by the leadership group and maintain dependable operations by the entire team at their respective levels.

  • Cucina, J. M., and N. Bowling. “John C. Flanagan’s Contributions within and beyond I-O Psychology.” The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist 53 (January 2016): 100–112.

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    Revision of John C. Flanagan’s contributions to the I-O psychology, including project TALENT, project PLAN, and the Critical Incidents Technique.

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  • Flanagan, J. C. “The Critical Incident Technique.” Psychological Bulleting 51 (1954): 327–358.

    DOI: 10.1037/h0061470Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Description of the critical incidents technique: collection of employees’ on-the-job behaviors, antecedents, consequences, low and high performance.

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  • Grace, M. “What Is A Game-Changing Design?” In Predator’s Game-Changing Designs: Research-Based Tools. LMX Leadership 7. Edited by G. B. Graen and J. A. Graen, 1–18. Charlotte, NC: Information Age, 2009.

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    Thought leader in whole design information technology application describing tools for critical incidents.

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Replacements in Teams

What is it? When the team must replace a member, a reorganization is needed to again capitalize on the unique mix of talent and engagement, which involves both the new and established members. The entire team, with the aid of the coach, implement a new apprenticeship process for the team. How does it work? A replacement of a member requires a new team adjustment. The team proceeds to inform themselves regarding the newcomer and in relation to themselves and seeks to identify strength and weakness. With the assistance of the coach, the team initiates peer apprenticeship and continues until agreed upon confidence in efficacy. A team with even one new member may be a danger to itself and others and needs to tread carefully.

  • Ballinger, G. A., D. W. Lehman, and F. D. Schoorman. “Leader-Member Exchange and Turnover before and after Succession Events.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 113 (2010): 25–36.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.04.003Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A study of the role of leadership succession as moderator of the relation between leader-member exchange (LMX) and turnover.

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  • Bunderson, J. S., G. S. Van, and R. T. Sparrowe. “Status Inertia and Member Replacement in Role-Differentiated Teams.” Organization Science 25 (2014): 57–72.

    DOI: 10.1287/orsc.2013.0835Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Examination of newcomers replacing members, drawing from status characteristics and status construction theories.

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  • Kim, B., G. Lee, and K. D. Carlson. “An Examination of the Nature of the Relationship between Leader-Member-Exchange (LMX) and Turnover Intent at Different Organizational Levels.” International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010): 591–597.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2009.10.025Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An examination of the nature of the relation between leader-member exchange (LMX) quality and turnover intent.

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  • Lacks, D. L. “Dynamics of Team Member Replacements from Complex Systems Theory.” Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory 10 (2005): 335–347.

    DOI: 10.1007/s10588-005-6285-zSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Assessment of team member replacements following gradual changes in the strategy of the team leader.

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Company Characteristics Hypothesized to Enhance or Truncate the Development of Workplace Leadership

The workplace leadership development is hypothesized to be affected by many seemingly unrelated outcroppings of the old company design and functioning at an earlier period of time, space, and weather. These relationships are assumed to vary between and within companies. Research has identified several characteristics, discussed further in this section.

Positive Company Culture

What is it? Company cultures are unique ways of thinking, communicating, expecting, and acting as members identifying with a company. Within organizations, many professionals practice their own subculture. Companies are seen as attractive to new professionals based on the reports from those who work within and around an organization. These reports are functions of the workplace experience (WX). How does it work? Prospective hires, customers, and other stakeholders use reports of company cultures to decide where to work, where to shop, and other stakeholder questions. Contributions to company cultures include the identity, purpose, strategies, and practices from top to bottom and inside out. Research shows that culture can be instrumental in improving service to customers. (“Culture” and “climate” are used interchangeably.)

  • Carr, J. Z., A. M. Schmidt, J. K. Ford, and R. P. DeShon. “Climate Perceptions Matter: A Meta-analytic Path Analysis Relating Molar Climate, Cognitive and Affective States, and Individual Level Work Outcomes.” Journal of Applied Psychology 88 (2003): 605–619.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.605Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The impact of climate on individual level outcomes through cognition and affection.

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  • Christian, M. S., J. C. Bradley, J. C. Wallace, and M. J. Burke. “Workplace Safety: A Meta-analysis of the Roles of Person and Situation Factors.” Journal of Applied Psychology 94 (2009): 1103–1127.

    DOI: 10.1037/a0016172Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Analysis of person- and situation-based antecedents of safety performance behaviors and outcomes.

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  • Hong, Y., H. Liao, J. Hu, and K. Jiang. “Missing Link in the Service Profit Chain: A Meta-analytic Review of the Antecedents, Consequences, and Moderators of Service Climate.” Journal of Applied Psychology 98 (2013): 237–267.

    DOI: 10.1037/a0031666Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A model explaining the antecedents, outcomes, and moderators of service climate.

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  • O’Reilly, C. A., III, D. F. Caldwell, J. A. Chatman, and B. Doerr. “The Promise and Problems of Organizational Culture, CEO Personality, and Firm Performance.” Group and Organization Management 39.6 (2014): 595–625.

    DOI: 10.1177/1059601114550713Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Study questioning the two assumptions of (a) senior leaders are the prime determinant of the culture and (b) culture is related to consequential organizational outcomes. Results show that CEO personality affects a firm’s culture and that culture is subsequently related to a broad set of organizational outcomes.

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  • Schneider, B., M. G. Ehrhart, and W. H. Macey. “Organizational Climate and Culture.” Annual Review of Psychology 64 (2013): 361–388.

    DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143809Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A review of theory and research of organizational climate and organizational culture.

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  • Trice, H. M., and J. M. Beyer. The Cultures of Work Organizations. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1993.

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    First comprehensive scientific integration of organizational cultures. A description of the ways in which culture evolves in the workplace.

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Positive Corporate Social Responsibility

What is it? The workplace experience assumes that the organization’s social responsibilities are important in the overall reputation of a company as a Fortune 500, a good community citizen, and a best place to work. The perception of the good citizen statues of a company is predicted to influence employees’ pride in and identification with company, unit performance, and other leadership outcomes. How does it work? Measures like corporate social responsibility (CSR) are taken from employees and correlated with both overall and unit measures of attraction, coaching, engagement, empowerment, retention, and performance. Problem and opportunity issues are investigated by a design team and design changes are made. Improved CSR scores indicate healthy and positive feelings of pride in the company.

  • Mallory, D. B., and D. E. Rupp. “‘Good’ Leadership: Using Corporate Social Responsibility to Enhance Leader-Member Exchange.” The Oxford Handbook of Leader-Member Exchange. Edited by T. N. Bauer and B. Erdogan, 335–350. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.

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    Comprehensive integration of strategic leadership as virtual leadership making at team levels.

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  • Orlitzky, M., F. L. Schmidt, and S. Rynes. “Corporate Social and Financial Performance: A Meta-analysis.” Organization Studies 24 (2003): 403–441.

    DOI: 10.1177/0170840603024003910Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Integrative, quantitative study showing that CSR pays off. Both corporate social and environmental responsibility had positive relations with corporate financial performance across industries and across study contexts.

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  • Pearce, C. L., C. L. Wassenaar, and C. C. Manz. “Is Shared Leadership the Key to Responsible Leadership?” Academy of Management Perspectives 28 (2014): 275–288.

    DOI: 10.5465/amp.2014.0017Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The link of shared leadership to responsible leadership. An introduction to the special issue on shared leadership.

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  • Rupp, D. E., and D. B. Mallory. “Corporate Social Responsibility: Psychological, Person-Centric, and Progressing.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 2 (2015): 211–236.

    DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111505Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A review of current research on employee-focused micro-CSR.

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Advanced Human Resource Operations

What is it? This organizational function is being transformed into a strategic player that attracts, hires, coaches, mentors, engages, empowers, and retains the best talent. Its priority is to advise the CEO team on talent strategy and implementing strategic practices. Human resource (HR) operations are needed to get the leadership talent required both for immediate needs and eventually the c-suit. As a strategic function, it becomes alert to changes in context and proactive in preparing the organization for the future. How does it work? HR departments are redesigning their operations for the future by using innovation design teams, identifying needed changes, and designing them. With the support of the CEO team, those programs that work are enhanced and those that do not work are redesigned. The new rule is the company with the best leadership functions wins.

  • Barney, J. “Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage.” Journal of Management 17 (1991): 99–120.

    DOI: 10.1177/014920639101700108Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Introduction of the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm. Organizational resources that are valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable (VRIN) are sources of competitive advantage.

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  • Jackson, S. E., and R. S. Schuler. “Understanding Human Resource Management in the Context of Organizations and Their Environments.” Annual Review of Psychology 46 (1995): 237–264.

    DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ps.46.020195.001321Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An assessment of human resource management (HRM) as a strategic part of organizational functioning. It reviews theoretical and empirical contributions to HRM and provides an integrative perspective.

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  • Lado, A. A., and M. C. Wilson. “Human Resource Systems and Sustained Competitive Advantage: A Competency-Based Perspective.” Academy of Management Review 19 (1994): 699–727.

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    Use of the RBV theory of the firm to explore the potential of HR systems to enhance or inhibit the development of competencies.

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  • Lengnick-Hall, M. L., C. A. Lengnick-Hall, L. S. Andrade, and B. Drake. “Strategic Human Resource Management: The Evolution of the Field.” Human Resource Management Review 19 (2009): 64–85.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2009.01.002Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A comprehensive chronological review of strategic human resource management (HRM).

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  • Snell, S. A., M. A. Youndt, and P. M. Wright. “Establishing a Framework for Research in Strategic Human Resource Management: Merging Resource Theory and Organizational Learning.” Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management 14 (1996): 61–90.

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    Development of a framework for research in strategic HRM, using resource-based theory, organizational learning, and organizational configurations.

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  • Wright, P. M., and S. A. Snell. “Toward and Integrative View of Strategic Human Resource Management.” Human Resource Management Review 1 (1991): 203–225.

    DOI: 10.1016/1053-4822(91)90015-5Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An integrative view of strategic HRM, bridging organizational theory, strategy, and HRM. Presentation of an open-systems model of HRM.

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Advanced Leadership Communication

What is it? This communication involves employees continuously probing the meaning or quality of their partnerships (actual or virtual) in and through the communication process. They use language in specific ways that mark relationship quality. They proffer definitions of the relationship either explicitly or implicitly that are either accepted, rejected, or modified by their partnership as they go along. Finally, they each have a linguistic repertoire of communicative options by drawing from relational discourses that instruct them in ways to think and talk about their work with colleagues at different pay levels. How does it work? The quality of the relationship between work partners filters and adds meaning to the communications process in that respect of competence, trust of character, and benevolence provide an evaluative frame for sense making. This means that sense making is played out through a process of successive approximation of meaning, for example, collaborative creativity requires trustworthy sharing of innovative thinking.

  • Ashcraft, K. L., T. R. Kuhn, and F. Cooren. “Constitutional Amendments: ‘Materializing’ Organizational Communication.” Academy of Management Annals 3 (2009): 1–64.

    DOI: 10.1080/19416520903047186Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An examination of the contributions of organizational communication in three venues: major contributions of the field, a synthesis of current moves, and future research streams.

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  • Barge, J. K., and G. T. Fairhurst. “Living Leadership: A Systemic, Constructionist Approach.” Leadership 4 (2008): 227–251.

    DOI: 10.1177/1742715008092360Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A theory of leadership based on systemic thinking and social constructionism.

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  • Bell, R. L., and C. Muir. “A Review of Business Communication under the Leadership Function.” Business Studies Journal 6 (2014): 99–121.

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    An extensive review of scholarly works on business communication.

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  • Connaughton, S. L., and J. Daly. “Leadership in the New Millennium: Communicating beyond Temporal, Spatial, and Geographical Boundaries.” In Communication Yearbook. Vol. 29. Edited by Pamela J. Kalbfleisch, 187–213. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005.

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    Review of global leadership communications for the 21st century.

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  • Fairhurst, G. T., and S. Connaughton. “Leadership.” In The Sage Handbook of Organizational Communication. Edited by Linda L. Putnam and Dennis K. Mumby, 401–423. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

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    Review of the advances of leadership communications from two different lenses: post-positive approach to leadership and a socially constructed view of leadership. The relation between communication effectiveness and leadership performance is addressed.

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  • Fairhurst, G. T., and M. Uhl-Bien. “Organizational Discourse Analysis (ODA): Examining Leadership as a Relational Process.” Leadership Quarterly 23 (2012): 1043–1062.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.10.005Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Organizational discourse analysis (ODA) as a methodology to study leadership. It offers researchers the possibility of seeing how leadership unfolds as a cocreated process.

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  • Weick, K. The Social Psychology of Organizing. 2d ed. New York: Random House, 1979.

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    Primer on making sense of critical incidents and approaching social psychology in an integrative manner.

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Understood Cognitive Expectations

What is it? The prototypes of expected leaders and leadership relations may be important to identify early in the boarding process. Taking these prototypes into account may allow for the making of the overall entry experience more friendly, respectful, and understandable. How does it work? During the hiring process, employees are interviewed concerning their thinking about their expected experience with superiors, peers, subordinates, and coworkers. These expectations are communicated to those who will serve the early processes. Awareness of such information permits better early memories of the company culture and deeper attachment.

  • Avolio, B. J., F. O. Walumbwa, and T. J. Weber. “Leadership: Current Theories, Research, and Future Directions.” Annual Review of Psychology 60 (2009): 421–449.

    DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Reviews cognitive and functional theories and suggest directions.

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  • Creary, S. J., B. B. Caza, and L. M. Roberts. “Out of the Box? How Managing a Subordinate’s Multiple Personalities Affects the Quality of a Manager-Subordinate Relationship.” Academy of Management Review 40.4 (2015): 538–562.

    DOI: 10.5465/amr.2013.0101Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Argues that match between leader and member on working alone or together with others influences their relationship.

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  • Day, D. V., J. W. Fleenor, L. E. Atwater, R. E. Sturm, and R. A. McKee. “Advances in Leader and Leadership Development: A Review of 25 Years of Research and Theory.” Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014): 63–82.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.004Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Review of theory and research in leadership under the lean design in the period 1990–2014, mainly in Leadership Quarterly.

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  • DeRue, S. D., and S. J. Ashford. “Who Will Lead and Who Will Follow? A Social Process of Leadership Identity Construction in Organizations.” Academy of Management Review 34 (2010): 627–648.

    DOI: 10.5465/AMR.2010.53503267Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Proposal of a theory of leadership in which leader and follower identities are socially constructed.

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  • Dinh, J. E., R. G. Lord, W. L. Gardner, J. D. Meuser, R. C. Liden, and J. Hu. “Leadership Theory and Research in the New Millennium: Current Theoretical Trends and Changing Perspectives.” Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014): 36–62.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.005Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A qualitative review of leadership research published in ten top-tier journals in the period 2000–2012. A process-oriented framework is provided as a way of integration.

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  • Epitropaki, O., and R. Martin. “From Ideal to Real: A Longitudinal Study of the Role of Implicit Leadership Theories on Leader-Member Exchanges and Employee Outcomes.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2005): 659–676.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.659Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Longitudinal study showing the relevance of implicit leadership theories for the quality of the leader-member exchange (LMX).

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  • Korschun, D. “Boundary-Spanning Employees and Relationships with External Stakeholders: A Social Identity Approach.” Academy of Management Review 40.4 (2015): 611–629.

    DOI: 10.5465/amr.2012.0398Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Augments for relation between personality identity of boundary-spanners and external stakeholders influence perceived performance of the company.

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  • van Knippenberg, D., and M. A. Hogg. “A Social Identity Model of Leadership Effectiveness in Organizations.” In Research in Organizational Behavior. Vol. 25. Edited by R. M. Kramer and B. M. Staw, 245–297. Oxford: Elsevier Science, 2003.

    DOI: 10.1016/S0191-3085(03)25006-1Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Review of research on cognitive social identity self-concept and teamwork.

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Enhanced Self-efficacy

What is it? An employee’s optimism in successfully completing a project based on perceived ability and motivation is considered self-efficacy. The theory is that this self-efficacy is related to both performance and interpersonal relations. How does it work? Employees’ sense of optimism about their competence is strengthened by proper coaching and frequent praise for completed projects. This greater sense of being able to do difficult projects has been related to improved performance and engagement in the work itself.

  • Bandura, A. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: Freeman, 1999.

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    Theory of growth and development of personal feelings of confidence in competence to succeed.

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  • Barreto, M., N. Ellemers, and S. Banal. “Working Undercover: Performance-Related Self-Confidence among Members of Contextually Devalued Groups Who Try to Pass.” European Journal of Social Psychology 36 (2006): 337–352.

    DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.314Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Experiment manipulating passing versus revealing a contextually devalued identity on performance.

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  • Hollenbeck, G. P., and D. T. Hall. “Self-Confidence and Leader Performance.” Organizational Dynamics 33 (2004): 254–269.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.orgdyn.2004.06.003Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The impact of self-confidence in leader performance. Based on research literature, interviews with executives, and teaching experiences.

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  • Judge, T. A., and J. E. Bono. “Relationship of Core Self-Evaluations Traits—Self-Esteem, Generalized Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, and Emotional Stability—with Job Satisfaction and Job Performance: A Meta-analysis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (2001): 80–92.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Meta-analysis of the relations between self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability with job satisfaction and job performance.

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  • Marine, B., and D. Olivier. “Are Memory Self-Efficacy and Memory Performance Related? A Meta-analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 137 (2011): 211–241.

    DOI: 10.1037/a0022106Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Meta-analysis of the association between self-efficacy and memory performance.

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Fulfilling Work

What is it? The job characteristics that may be improved by role making include skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and job feedback (Hackman and Oldham 1980). The search for team organization of work specialty involves testing a number of alternative forms to find the most engaging alternatives given overall team performance. How does it work? The work itself can be an intrinsic and an extrinsic motivator when team specialties are refined in role making. The final team organization may benefit from improving the job characteristics of each interdependent role. The first team experiences greater improvement than the second team due to enriched work characteristics.

  • Hackman, J. R., and G. R. Oldham. Work Redesign. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980.

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    Statement of original job characteristic model. Five core job dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) lead to three critical psychological states (meaningfulness, responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of results), which in turn affect five work outcomes (motivation, performance, satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover). Growth needs strength moderates the above relationships.

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  • Hackman, J. R., and R. Wageman. “Asking the Right Questions about Leadership: Discussion and Conclusions.” American Psychologist 62 (2007): 43–47.

    DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.62.1.43Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Five questions suggesting new directions for leadership research: (1) Under what conditions does leadership matter? (2) How do leaders’ attributes interact with situations to shape outcomes? (3) Are good and poor leadership qualitatively different? (4) How can leadership models be reformulated to treat all system members as both leaders and followers? (5) How can leaders be helped to learn?

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  • Humphrey, S. E., J. D. Nahrgang, and F. P. Morgeson. “Integrating Motivational, Social, and Contextual Work Design Features: A Meta-analytic Summary and Theoretical Extension of the Work Design Literature.” Journal of Applied Psychology 5 (2007): 1332–1356.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.92.5.1332Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Development and test of an extended work design theory that integrates motivational, social, and work characteristics. Some antecedents added are information processing, job complexity, specialization, problem solving, interdependence, social support, physical demands, and working conditions. Some outcomes added job involvement, organizational commitment, and role ambiguity.

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  • Ilgen, D. R., and J. R. Hollenbeck. “The Structure of Work: Job Design and Roles.” In Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Edited by M. D. Dunnette and L. M. Hough, 165–208. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists, 1992.

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    A delineation of the boundaries between jobs and roles.

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  • Morgeson, F. P., and S. E. Humphrey. “The Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ): Developing and Validating a Comprehensive Measure for Assessing Design and the Nature of Work.” Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (2006): 1321–1339.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.91.6.1321Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A work design questionnaire, validated with 540 incumbents holding 243 different jobs. Excellent reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity.

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Trustworthy Leaders

What is it? Trust is the decision to rely on another (person, group, and organization) under personal risk. From the perspective of individuals trusting all levels of an organization are connected and should be researched at individual, team, and company levels. How does it work? Followers’ trust in the company is related to trust in immediate leader’s ability and integrity. Thus, the flows of trust upward, downward, and across the organization are researched. Trust is related to organizations representatives dealing with employees, customers, and outside associates. The development of trust over time is studied as phases of building, maintaining, and destroying.

  • Currall, S. C., and M. J. Epstein. “The Fragility of Organizational Trust: Lessons from the Rise and Fall of Enron.” Organizational Dynamics 32 (2003): 193–206.

    DOI: 10.1016/S0090-2616(03)00018-4Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Development of a framework of factors that lead to organizational trust. Expectations, record of trustworthiness, and social influences lead to decision to trust, which in turn is linked to trusting actions.

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  • Hunter, S. T., B. W. Tate, J. L. Dziewecynski, and K. E. Bedell-Avers. “Leaders Make Mistakes: A Multilevel Consideration of Why.” Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011): 239–258.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.02.001Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A multilevel theoretical framework of antecedents of leaders’ errors, using behavioral taxonomy. Some themes identified are impact of timeframe, influence of expertise, rigidity in problem solving, and role of the subordinate in minimizing negative impacts.

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  • Jeffries, F. L., and R. Reed. “Trust and Adaptation in Relational Contracting.” Academy of Management Review 25 (2000): 873–882.

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    Too much trust is as bad as too little trust.

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  • McEvily, W., V. Perrone, and A. Zaheer. “Introduction to the Special Issue on Trust in an Organizational Context.” Organization Science 14 (2003): 1–4.

    DOI: 10.1287/orsc.14.1.1.12812Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Why organizational trust matters.

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  • Rousseau, D. M., S. Sitkin, R. S. Burt, and C. Camerer. “Not So Different after All: A Cross-Discipline View of Trust.” Academy of Management Review 23 (1998): 393–404.

    DOI: 10.5465/AMR.1998.926617Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A multi-approach to the phenomenon of organizational trust.

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  • Sitkin, S. B., and A. L. Pablo. “Reconceptualizing the Determinants of Risk Behavior.” Academy of Management Review 17 (1992): 9–38.

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    Risk propensity and risk perception as determinants of risk behavior.

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Identification of Leadership Potential

What is it? New team members may be interested in a form of apprenticeship to grow their professional leadership competence. Some may not. Team heads, coaches, and members may see these and accept a strengthening expert-apprentice engagement. This bond often develops into emotional bonds based on shared achievement, affiliation, joy, and pain. Prerequisites for apprentices and experts in leadership become mutual trust in character, respect for competence, and benevolence. Breaking these bonds in conflict is both a career and emotional loss. How does it work? Team heads and new team members make career choices based on information gathered very early in their collaboration and training. No entry test works as well as special assignments with feedback sessions. Both parties informally test one another and make their choices of team leadership partners or sustaining team members. The consequent strength of this process depends on many company characteristics.

Equitable Employee Justice

What is it? Employee perceptions of the justice system are important predictors of their collaboration, engagement, and retention. The structure and process of receiving fair treatment in the company needs to be made transparent in terms of normative rules, moral accountability, and social exchange. How does it work? Managers at all levels must ensure the company rules and that all employees stand as equals in any dispute. This includes appeals to higher boards.

  • Colquitt, J. A. “Does the Justice of the One Interact with the Justice of the Many? Reactions to Procedural Justice in Teams.” Journal of Applied Psychology 89 (2004): 633–646.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.633Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An examination of reactions to procedural justice in teams.

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  • Kray, L. J., and L. E. Allan. “The Injustices of Others: Social Reports and the Integration of Others’ Experiences in Organizational Justice Judgments.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 89 (2002): 906–924.

    DOI: 10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00035-3Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    How people integrate others’ injustice experiences.

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  • Lam, S. S., J. Schaubroeck, and S. Aryee. “Relationship between Organizational Justice and Employee Work Outcomes: A Cross-National Study.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 23 (2002): 1–18.

    DOI: 10.1002/job.131Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The influence of societal culture on the relation between organizational justice perceptions and employee work outcomes.

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  • Rupp, D. E., R. Shao, K. S. Jones, and H. Liao. “The Utility of a Multifoci Approach to the Study of Organizational Justice: A Meta-analytic Investigation into the Consideration of Normative Rules, Moral Accountability, Bandwidth-Fidelity, and Social Exchange.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 123 (2014): 159–185.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2013.10.011Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Multifoci justice perceptions as predictors of type-based justice perceptions and target similarity.

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  • Scandura, T. A. “Rethinking Leader-Member Exchange: An Organizational Justice Perspective.” Leadership Quarterly 10 (1999): 25–40.

    DOI: 10.1016/S1048-9843(99)80007-1Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An examination of leader-member exchange (LMX) literature from an organizational justice perspective.

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  • Spencer, S., and D. E. Rupp. “Angry, Guilty, and Conflicted: Injustice toward Coworkers Heightens Emotional Labor through Cognitive and Emotional Mechanisms.” Journal of Applied Psychology 94 (2009): 429–444.

    DOI: 10.1037/a0013804Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Based on fairness theory and affective events theory, this study analyzes the impact of customers’ injustice through coworkers on individuals’ emotional labor.

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Fulfilling Psychological Contracts

What is it? Psychological contract is a perception by employees of the fulfillment of their rights under the social rules of workplace experience prevailing in the particular cultural roles and norms. Fulfillment of these roles and norms permit a companywide sense of solidarity. In contrast, violations may lead to negative productivity, turnover, hostile interactions, less employees helping others outside of their jobs, and a feeling of poor fit between an employee and employer. The perceived psychological contract measure makes an acceptable indicator. How does it work? Measures of compliance with the psychological contract identify problem areas. Problem and opportunity spaces may be studied more intensively by design team(s) and root issues resolved by improvements. Incumbents’ perception of the size of a psychological contract’s breach has been found to have positive relations to intentions to quit and turnover; in addition, negative relations have been supported for performance, trust, commitment, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors (Rousseau 2011). Also, those in the leadership subgroup complain about this much less than their other team members.

  • Coyle-Shapiro, J. A. -M., and N. Conway. “Exchange Relationships: Examining Psychological Contracts and Perceived Organizational Support.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2005): 774–781.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.774Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Investigation about the perception employees have of psychological contracts and perceived organizational support over time.

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  • Johnson, J. L., and A. M. O’Leary Kelly. “The Effects of Psychological Contract Breach and Organizational Cynicism: Not All Social Exchange Violations are Created Equal.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 24 (2003): 627–647.

    DOI: 10.1002/job.207Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An exploration of the differentiated effects on employees that perceived psychological contract breaches and organizational cynicism have.

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  • Robinson, S. L., and G. Brown. “Psychological Contract Breach and Violation: A Review.” In Dark Side of Organizational Behavior. Edited by Anne O’Leary-Kelly and Richard Griffin, 309–338. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004.

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    Presents a review of research on the consequences of breaking the social contract between management and labor. It does not include violations of fair labor practices.

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  • Rousseau, D. M. “The Individual-Organization Relationship: The Psychological Contract.” In APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Edited by Sheldon Zedeck, 191–220. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2011.

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    Recent review of research on the psychological contract by the author of many refinements of the theory.

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  • Schein, E. H. Organizational Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965.

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    One of the first presentations of the concept of a social contract that is expected to be understood by both sides of the formal contract.

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  • Tekleab, A. G., and M. S. Taylor. “Aren’t There Two Parties in an Employment Relationship? Antecedents and Consequences of Organization-Employee Agreement on Contract Obligations and Violations.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 24 (2003): 585–608.

    DOI: 10.1002/job.204Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An assessment of parties’ agreement on the reciprocal obligations of a psychological contract and consequences on the perception of contract violations.

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Positive Political Skills

What is it? Attributions of coworkers’ work motivations are difficult. Leaders and followers need to be aware of how their behaviors are perceived and interpreted within the context of the political workplace. In determining whether subordinate behaviors are self-serving or service to others, coworkers need to consider the consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency of the behavior across time and contexts. Those who act to fool their colleagues and those who are honest and ethical need to be observed carefully to identify the differences. How does it work? Employees must play detective and question the motives of their coworkers or become used by the unethical gamers. Being skeptical of others until they prove themselves is the only practical course.

  • Becker, T. E., and S. L. Martin. “Trying to Look Bad at Work: Methods and Motives for Managing Poor Impressions in Organizations.” Academy of Management Journal 38 (1995): 174–199.

    DOI: 10.2307/256732Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Documentation of five behaviors to intentionally look bad at work to convey unfavorable impressions: decreasing performance, not working to potential, withdrawal, displaying a bad attitude, and broadcasting limitations.

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  • Ferris, G. R., and K. M. Kacmar. “Perceptions of Organizational Politics.” Journal of Management 18 (1992): 93–116.

    DOI: 10.1177/014920639201800107Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An examination of the model of organizational politics perception. Feedback, job autonomy, skill variety, and opportunity for promotion accounted for the perceptions of organizational politics.

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  • Perrewé, P. L., K. L. Zellars, G. R. Ferris, A. M. Rossi, C. J. Kacmar, and D. A. Ralston. “Neutralizing Job Stressors: Political Skill as an Antidote to the Dysfunctional Consequences of Role Conflict.” Academy of Management Journal 47 (2004): 141–152.

    DOI: 10.2307/20159566Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Assessment of the neutralizing influence of political skill on the relation between perceived role conflict and strain.

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  • Wayne, S. J., and R. C. Liden. “Effects of Impression Management on Performance Ratings: A Longitudinal Study.” Academy of Management Journal 38 (1995): 232–260.

    DOI: 10.2307/256734Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Test of a model proposing subordinates’ impression management influences their supervisors’ performance ratings. Perceptions of similarity between supervisor and subordinate were useful to predict performance twenty weeks prior to performance appraisal.

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Good Citizenship

What is it? Good citizenship is defined as the voluntary helping by an employee that is not part of the formal job description. This is taken to mean that no other plausible driver of this behavior exists. This helping of coworkers in one’s business unit has been found to be related more frequently by those in the leadership corp than in the sustain corp of teams. How does it work? The trait of altruism is thought to be related to the voluntary and not extrinsically compensated acts of helping coworkers not prescribed in one’s job description. Efforts have been made to select employees based on measures of altruism toward others and the overall company. It also may be a product of organizing the team into different corps.

  • Cooperrider, D. “Managing-as-Designing in an Era of Massive Innovation: A Call for Design-Inspired Corporate Citizenship.” Journal of Corporate Citizenship 37 (2010): 24–33.

    DOI: 10.9774/GLEAF.4700.2010.sp.00004Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A call for the corporate-level designs of good citizenship.

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  • Mehta, M. “Growth by Design: How Good Design Drives Company Growth.” Ivey Business Journal 70 (2006): 1–5.

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    A description of the processes that enable an effective innovation culture that can drive continuous breakthrough ideas.

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  • Organ, D. W., and K. Ryan. “A Meta-analytic Review of Attitudinal and Dispositional Predictors of Organizational Citizenship Behavior.” Personal Psychology 48 (1998): 775–802.

    DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1995.tb01781.xSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Meta-analysis of cognitive correlates of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The analysis of fifty-five studies revealed that job attitudes are a good predictor of OCBs.

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  • Podsakoff, N. P., W. W. Whiting, P. M. Podsakoff, and P. Mishra. “Effects of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors on Selection Decisions in Employment Interviews.” Journal of Applied Psychology 96 (2011): 310–326.

    DOI: 10.1037/a0020948Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Review of attempts to use OCB correlates for selection. Using an experimental design, results from interviewing 480 candidates revealed that job candidates exhibiting higher levels of helping, voice, and loyalty behaviors were generally rated as more competent, obtained higher evaluations, and received higher salary recommendations than those candidates exhibiting lower levels of these behaviors.

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  • Rotundo, M., and P. R. Sackett. “The Relative Importance of Task, Citizenship, and Counterproductive Performance to Global Ratings of Job Performance. A Policy-Capturing Approach.” Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (2002): 66–80.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.66Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    An item theory analysis of importance of task, and positive and negative OCB on overall performance rating.

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  • Sparrowe, R. T., B. W. Soetjipto, and M. L. Kramer. “Do Leaders’ Influence Tactics Relate to Members’ Helping Behavior? It Depends on the Quality of the Relationship.” Academy of Management Journal 49 (2006): 1194–1208.

    DOI: 10.5465/AMJ.2006.23478645Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    The relation between leaders and followers depends on the quality of the leader-member exchange (LMX). Using LMX and the group engagement model, it is shown that LMX quality moderates the relation between influence tactics and helping behavior.

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  • Todd, S. Y., and A. Kent. “Direct and Indirect Effects of Task Characteristics on Organizational Citizen Behavior.” North American Journal of Psychology 8 (2006): 253–268.

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    A look at task characteristics related to helping coworkers (OCB). Support for a positive relation between job self-efficacy and OCBs.

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Charisma of Company

What is it? Charisma is a characteristic of managers that people who work with them describe as creating a culture people desired to follow with great commitment to serve. Charisma had been difficult to document until Graen and his associates did so employing “team differentiation” in the 1970s. They discovered that teams routinely reorganize to maximize the available talent and resources. This creates two teams: a charisma-driven problem-solving group for responding to critical incidents and a non-charismatic-driven support group to sustain team functions during critical incidents. These groups receive different support and rewards. How does it work? According to several meta-analytic investigations, those fortunate enough to earn charismatic-based partnerships with their manager attribute many charismatic characteristics and behavior to their manager that are not shared by the other team members in the sustaining group. These positive descriptions include “leader-member exchange” (LMX), “charisma,” “transformational leadership” (TFL), “servant,” and “authentic” accolades by the fortunate members. In sum, if managers are to be described in such glowing terms by some of their employees, they need to differentiate their teams fairly to capitalize on every member’s unique contribution to the total team effort.

  • Avolio, B. J., F. O. Walumbwa, and T. J. Todd. “Leadership: Current Theories, Research, and Future Directions.” Annual Review of Psychology 60 (2009): 421–449.

    DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Review of theories based on in-group and out-group definition of teams and puzzling recommending in-group quality for out-group regardless of merit, trust, or competence.

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  • Dulebohn, J. H., W. H. Bommer, R. C. Liden, R. Brouer, and G. R. Ferris. “A Meta-analysis of the Antecedents and Consequences of Leader-Member Exchange: Integrating the Past with an Eye toward the Future.” Journal of Management 38 (2012): 1715–1759.

    DOI: 10.1177/0149206311415280Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Leader variables explained most variance in LMX quality; country and work settings did not influence the between antecedents and consequences of LMX.

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  • Gerstner, C. R., and D. V. Day. “Meta-analytic Review of Leader-Member Exchange Theory: Correlates and Construct Ideas.” Journal of Applied Psychology 82 (1997): 827–844.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.827Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Significant relations were found between LMX and job performance, satisfaction with supervision, overall satisfaction, commitment, role conflict, role clarity, member competence, and turnover intentions.

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  • Gottfredson, R. K., and H. Aguinis. “Leadership Behaviors and Follower Performance: Deductive and Inductive Examination of Theoretical Rationales and Underlying Mechanisms.” Journal of Organizational Behavior (2016).

    DOI: 10.11002/job.2152Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    First to confirm the best available descriptive model of structure equations for the charismatic leadership developmental process in teams: (1) create leader-member exchange–unique strategic alliance (LMX-USA) between leader and each follower, (2) use incentives (transformational discussions, contingent rewards, or consideration and structuring, (3) receive LMX contracts results.

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  • Ilies, R., J. D. Nahrgang, and F. P. Morgeson. “Leader-Member Exchange and Citizenship Behaviors: A Meta-analysis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007): 269–277.

    DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.269Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A moderately strong positive relation between LMX and citizenship behaviors. Other important relations are analyzed and supported.

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  • Rockstuhl, T., J. H. Dulebohn, S. Ang, and L. M. Shore. “Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) and Culture: A Meta-analysis of Correlates of LMX across 23 Countries.” Journal of Applied Psychology 97 (2012): 1097–1130.

    DOI: 10.1037/a0029978Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Analysis of national culture as a moderator of LMX and its correlates.

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Hypothesized Global Workplace Leadership Improvements

Cross-cultural and virtual workplace partnership cannot be built and maintained by assuming that what worked in the dominant company’s Western culture will work equally well with Eastern colleagues and virtual world travelers. Needless waste of leadership capital may be lost by such assumptions. Company leadership needs to identify the cultural parts of these partnerships and reward those making the extra effort. Colleagues from different cultures were socialized under different ways of thinking, communicating, and acting. These differences, though often difficult, may be overcome by small groups working together and earning mutual trust of character, respect for competence, and benevolence. Focusing on a private third culture may help both sides to make sense of each other and collaborate. Teams unable to enjoy the experience of getting to know the unique immediate characteristics of follow team members may learn about each other by playing learning from peers and competitive on-going games over times and space.

East and West Partnerships

What is it? Eastern leadership and management thinking are as different as distinct cultures can become. They are different in past history and current circumstance and thus have mainly genetic endowment in common. Yet companies from East and West commonly collaborate for mutual benefit. The differences are so vast that few individuals succeed in making the transition from stranger to trusted and valued partner. The good news is that the dyadic and small teams are building the bridges of communications and understanding with increasing quality and quantity. How does it work? Companies improve their cross-cultural trust, respect, and positive understanding by going the extra distance of making cross-cultural assignments include both the at-home responsibilities and making cross-cultural partners for the long term. Eastern friends are wonderful partners.

  • Bealer, D., and R. Bhanugopan. “Transactional and Transformational Leadership Behaviour of Expatriate and National Managers in the UAE: A Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis.” International Journal of Human Resource Management 19 (2014): 293–316.

    DOI: 10.1080/09585192.2013.826914Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Comparison of leadership behavior of expatriates and national managers in the United Arab Emirates to explain their differences in style.

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  • Chen, C. C., and Y. -T. Lee. Leadership and Management in China: Philosophies, Theories and Practices. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

    DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511753763Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Interpretation of evaluation of Chinese thoughts about leadership from the ancient to the present as told by Chinese leadership scholars for Westerners.

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  • Dickson, M. W., D. N. den Hartog, and J. K. Mitchelson. “Research on Leadership in a Cross-Cultural Context: Making Progress, and Raising New Questions.” Leadership Quarterly 14 (2003): 729–768.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2003.09.002Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Review and description of the major advances and emergent patterns in the research of cross-cultural leadership.

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  • Gibson, C. B., and D. M. McDaniel. “Moving beyond Conventional Wisdom: Advancements in Cross-Cultural Theories of Leadership, Conflict, and Teams.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 5 (2010): 450–462.

    DOI: 10.1177/1745691610375560Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Illustration of cross-cultural research in leadership, conflict, and teams in the period 1990–2010.

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  • Javidan, M., P. W. Dorfman, S. L. Mary, and R. J. House. “In the Eye of the Beholder: Cross Cultural Lessons in Leadership from Project GLOBE.” Academy of Management Perspectives 20 (2006): 67–90.

    DOI: 10.5465/AMP.2006.19873410Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Findings from the GLOBE project are used to conceptualize worldwide leadership differences.

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  • Pellegrini, E. K., T. A. Scandura, and V. Jayaraman. “Cross-Cultural Generalizability of Paternalistic Leadership: An Expansion of Leader-Member Exchange Theory.” Group and Organization Management 35 (2010): 391–420.

    DOI: 10.1177/1059601110378456Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Paternalism, a combination of benevolence and authority, is prevalent in non-Western settings. This paper extends the study of paternalism to a Western business context.

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  • Peterlin, J., V. Dimovski, M. Uhan, and S. Penger. “Integrating Stakeholders’ Multiple Intelligences into the Leadership Development of a Cross-Cultural Entity: Evidence from the CI Ljubljana.” Journal for East European Management Studies 20 (2015): 202–225.

    DOI: 10.5771/0949-6181-2015-2-202Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Qualitative study of multiple intelligences of Chinese and Slovenian stakeholders and how such intelligences can be integrated into leadership development.

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  • Scandura, T., and P. Dorfman. “Theoretical Letters: Leadership Research in an International and Cross-Cultural Context.” Leadership Quarterly 15 (2004): 277–307.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.02.004Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A discussion of leadership research in the international and cross-cultural context.

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  • Takahashi, K., J. Ishikawa, and T. Kanai. “Qualitative and Quantitative Studies of Leadership in Multinational Settings: Meta-analytic and Cross-Cultural Reviews.” Journal of World Business 47 (2012): 530–538.

    DOI: 10.1016/j.jwb.2012.01.006Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    A test of Western theories of leadership in Japan. It is argued that Japanese leadership practices may differ from those of the Western. Such differences are rooted in Japanese cultural traditions and business practices.

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Virtual Organization Partnerships

What is it? These are the most difficult to make into leadership-sharing teams. Such teams are held together by adequate and current information and feelings of the frequent presence of team support and virtual team and network leadership. How does it work? Managers, leaders, and members of far-flung teams learn how to build mutual, long-term, distant trust of character, respect of competence, and benevolence in the team. The support of the company culture in this process can be critical. Empirical research on virtual teams is abundant. Some of the topics investigated include the roles of trust, information sharing, communication, cultural diversity, knowledge sharing, and best practices.

  • Avolio, B. J., and S. S. Kahai. “Adding the ‘E’ to E-Leadership: How It May Impact Your Leadership.” Organizational Dynamics 31 (2002): 325–338.

    DOI: 10.1016/S0090-2616(02)00133-XSave Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Definition and exploration of e-leadership. Discussion of factors involved in working with people at a distance, using information technology.

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  • Bell, B. S., and S. W. J. Kozlowski. “A Typology of Virtual Teams. Implications for Effective Leadership.” Group and Organization Management 27 (2002): 14–49.

    DOI: 10.1177/1059601102027001003Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Examination of virtual teams in corporate globalized entities. Discussion of leadership and team implications.

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  • Bhat, S. K., S. Alavi, and V. Ahuja. “Meta-analysis of Virtual Teams.” International Journal of Virtual Communities and Social Networking 6 (2014): 1–13.

    DOI: 10.4018/IJVCSN.2014100101Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Analysis of role of trust in building effective virtual teams. Organizations that plan, develop, and administer programs that use a virtual paradigm to enhance employee productivity will be benefited from doing so.

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Performance Rating

What is it? Ratings of performance of team members on their jobs in organizations are typically made annually and are used to (a) teach subordinates through feedback and (b) justify compensation and movement decisions. How does it work? People are hired into jobs described by job descriptions and specification documents (standardized by the US Bureau of Labor for use by Civil Service Systems). During the on-boarding process, job incumbents are assimilated into teams and their duties and responsibilities are tested and changed to optimize the ability and engagement of the team. For commercial companies, performance rating procedures need to be redesigned to include the missing important issues: (a) team description of jobs, (b) a separation of performance feedback and peers learning from peers, (c) contributions of those volunteering to go in harm’s way to confront critical incidents, (d) empowerment of team through networking, (e) required flexibility, and (f) acknowledgement of levels of performance to company sustainability.

  • Adler, S., M. Campion, A. Colquitt, A. Grubb, and K. Murphy. “Getting Rid of Performance Ratings: Genius or Folly? A Debate.” Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice 9.2 (2016).

    DOI: 10.1017/iop.2015.106Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Review of research on performance ratings as part of human resource (HR) performance management concluding that present practice needs to be replaced by more research-compatible ones.

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  • Canedo, J., G. B. Graen, and M. Grace. “Is Your Performance Management System Designed for the Future?” Industrial and Organizational Psychology Perspectives on Science and Practice 9.1 (2015).

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    Presents research suggesting present HR performance management system is out of date and suggests designs and development thinking to prepare for workplace leadership.

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  • Lawler, E. E., G. S. Benson, and M. McDermott. “Performance Management and Reward Systems.” World at Work Journal (November 2012): 19–28.

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    Review of performance management systems in operation and no replacements of those more compatible with research demanded by organizations.

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  • Pulakos, E. D., R. A. Mueller-Hanson, S. Arad, and N. Moye. “Performance Management Can Be Fixed: An On-the-Job Experiential Learning Approach for Complex Behavior Change.” Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice 8.1 (2015): 51–76.

    DOI: 10.1017/iop.2014.2Save Citation »Export Citation » Share Citation »

    Description of how the first steps in a more valid, useful performance management system may be designed. Combines on-the-job learning with performance improvement and merit.

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