Brokerage in Networks

by

Roslina Yong, Yong H. Kim, Yonghoon G. Lee

• LAST REVIEWED: 14 December 2022
• LAST MODIFIED: 24 July 2018
• DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199846740-0146

Introduction

Networks refer to a web of social relations by which social actors—be they individuals or organizations—exchange knowledge and resources, tangible or intangible. Brokerage occurs when these actors—often noted as brokers—connect otherwise disconnected alters. Brokerage is important in network research for several reasons. Brokers play an integral role in connecting different communities of actors, moving knowledge and information, or intermediating resource exchanges. In doing so, brokers take various types of advantages based on their access to diverse information and their opportunities to arbitrage resource exchanges. These advantages have been shown to help brokers gain competitive advantages. However, such advantages might come at a cost, especially because brokers sometimes need to handle and work with alters who hold incompatible expectations with each other, or with alters who wish to disintermediate brokers. Given these implications of brokerages on various types of advantages, another set of works focuses on where do brokers come from and how brokerage changes over time. Both dispositional characteristics and situational conditions are known to help social actors to engage in brokerage activities. However, given the inherent challenges in brokerage acts, actors find difficult to persist as brokers, ensuing a complex dynamics on the brokerage.

Foundational Works

Simmel 1950 forms the basis of research on networks and brokerage. Simmel introduces the idea of the third actor as the tertius gaudens—the “third who benefits,” a concept that is accepted and assumed by many existing studies on network brokerage. Burt 1992 furthers the understanding of this triadic relationship by introducing the concept of structural holes—an environment where the tertius communicates information between unconnected contacts. His work also provides insight into the strategic advantages of spanning structural holes and bridging positions.

• Burt, R. S. Structural Holes: The Structure of Competition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.

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  Burt introduces the concept of structural holes—an environment for tertius strategies, where the tertius transfers information between unconnected contacts. Structural holes provide brokers with competitive advantage by conferring information and control benefits. Information benefits refer to access to a wide range of information in a timely manner. Control benefits refer to having an upperhand in deciding the terms and conditions of resource exchanges.

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• Simmel, G. “The Triad.” The Sociology of Georg Simmel. Edited by Kurt H. Wolff, 145–169. New York: Free Press, 1950.

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  Simmel elaborates on three types of triadic relationships, and emphasises on the third social element. The first kind was the nonpartisan where the third actor strengthens the relationship between the other two actors. The second kind is the tertius gaudens. Here, the third actor maintains the separation between the other two actors, thus benefiting as a broker. The third kind is the divide et impera, where the third actor sows discord between the other two actors to acquire a dominating position.

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Antecedents and Origins of Network Brokerage

Given the competitive advantages that network brokerage can provide, are some individuals more likely to be brokers than others? Burt 2012 finds that a person is more likely to be a broker in one setting if he or she is one in another setting. If so, then what are the factors that encourage network actors to become brokers? Burt, et al. 1998 suggests that there is an association between personality and structural holes and find that brokers are often characterized by traits such as independence and care for information accuracy. Kalish and Robins 2006 supports this suggestion by finding that brokers tend to be individualists, but they also find that brokers tend to be more neurotic and have greater internal locus of control. O’Connor and Gladstone 2018 demonstrates that attractive people tend to be and prefer to be brokers in their social networks. Further, Fang, et al. 2015 demonstrates that brokerage can be predicted by the trait of self-monitoring above and beyond the Big Five personality traits. This relationship between self-monitoring and brokerage is stronger for highly empathic persons, as demonstrated by Kleinbaum, et al. 2015. Personality attributes aside, the emergence of network brokerage can also emerge from factors related to an individual’s surroundings. For example, Kleinbaum 2012 argues that brokerage comes with accumulated relationships with former co-workers and friends’ friends and is more likely available to organizational misfits. Investigating knowledge transfer of return migrants, Wang 2015 finds that the success of knowledge transfer and the ability to broker depend on factors such as host- and home-country embeddedness and home-country’s state of xenophobia. Network brokerage also emerges from factors related to the past. Lee 2010 finds that past performance and actor-level heterogeneity predict brokerage patterns. Sytch, et al. 2012 studies the effect of proximate network structures on the emergence of new briding ties. Lastly, Zaheer and Soda 2009 provides evidence to show that structural holes emerge from past structural holes.

• Burt, R. S. “Network-Related Personality and the Agency Question: Multirole Evidence from a Virtual World.” American Journal of Sociology 118.3 (2012): 543–591.

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  This study examines the presence of agency in building ego-network drawing on an analytical opportunity to examine multiple networks created by the same individual in a virtual world. Burt finds that individuals build similar networks in their different roles. However, he also finds that this network consistency makes no contribution in determining achievement. Rather, achievement is predicted by experience and the role-specific network.

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• Burt, R. S., J. E. Jannotta, and J. T. Mahoney. “Personality Correlates of Structural Holes.” Social Networks 20.1 (1998): 63–87.

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  This paper makes an early attempt to explore the association between personality and structural holes. The authors find that personality varies systematically with structural holes. Structurally least constrained individuals are independent persons who care about the accuracy of their information on colleagues, have experience with resistance, and appreciate persuading others. Conversely, constrained individuals score high on conformity and obedience, do well with social support from colleagues, are risk-averse, focus on assignment technicalities, and attracted to stability.

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• Fang, R., B. Landis, Z. Zhang, M. H. Anderson, J. D. Shaw, and M. Kilduff. “Integrating Personality and Social Networks: A Meta-Analysis of Personality, Network Position, and Work Outcomes in Organizations.” Organization Science 26.4 (2015): 1243–1260.

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  Using a meta-analytic approach, this study presents an integrated view of the impact that personality and network position have job performance and career success. The authors find that (i) self-monitoring predicted in-degree centrality and brokerage above and beyond the Big Five personality traits; (ii) compared with brokerage, in-degree centrality was more strongly associated with job performance and career success; and (iii) personality predicted job performance and career success and more importantly this relationship is partially mediated by people’s network position.

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• Gould, R. V., and R. M. Fernandez. “Structures of Mediation: A Formal Approach to Brokerage in Transaction Networks.” Sociological Methodology 19 (1989): 89–126.

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  This paper attempts to clarify the concept of brokerage. The authors achieve this through developing the theory of brokerage behavior in social structures defined by the transfer of resources. Five categories of brokerage are identified and quantitative measures for each category are created to test whether the acquisition of a brokerage position is due to a random distribution of transfer relationships or due to underlying social systems.

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• Kalish, Y., and G. Robins. “Psychological Predispositions and Network Structure: The Relationship between Individual Predispositions, Structural Holes and Network Closure.” Social Networks 28.1 (2006): 56–84.

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  This paper explores the influence of psychological predispositions on individuals’ network structure. Results reveal that there are three major components explaining strength-of-weak-ties and structural holes theories. First, individuals embedded in closed networks of weak connections perceive themselves as vulnerable to external forces. Second, individuals spanning structural holes are individualists, have greater internal locus of control, and score higher on the neuroticism scale. Third, individuals in cohesive networks with weak structural holes classify people according to group members, are extraverts and less individualistic.

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• Kleinbaum, A. M. “Organizational Misfits and the Origins of Brokerage in Intrafirm Networks.” Administrative Science Quarterly 57.3 (2012): 407–452.

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  Introducing a novel application of sequence-analytic methods and a new instrument for measuring brokerage spanning across observable boundaries, this study investigates the effect of career processes on the emergence of brokerage positions. Kleinbaum argues that brokerage emerges from having an atypical career path, because such a career trajectory helps to accumulate former co-workers and friends’ friends who are part of a different communication circles. He finds that when compared with individuals who follow more conventional career paths, organizational misfits have more access to brokerage opportunities.

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• Kleinbaum, A. M., A. H. Jordan, and Audia. “An Altercentric Perspective on the Origins of Brokerage in Social Networks: How Perceived Empathy Moderates the Self-Monitoring Effect.” Organization Science 26.4 (2015): 1226–1242.

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  Using an altercentric approach, this study investigates the influence of other-perceived personality and relational behavior on the shaping of an individual’s network structure. Building on past literature about the relationship between self-monitoring and brokerage, the authors argue that this relationship is stronger for those who are perceived as highly empathic individuals. This is attributed to the higher tendency of others reciprocating the social interactions of high self-monitors with higher levels of empathy.

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• Lee, Jeongsik “Jay”. “Heterogeneity, Brokerage, and Innovative Performance: Endogenous Formation of Collaborative Inventor Networks.” Organization Science 21.4 (2010): 804–822.

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  In this study, the author argues for the impact of past performance on actors’ network positions. Using the data on collaboration network of U.S. biotech inventors, he finds that high performing inventors tend to have collaborations that enhance brokerage. He also finds support for the argument that individual heterogeneity explains brokerage patterns, mediating the association between position and performance.

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• O’Connor, K. M., and E. Gladstone. “Beauty and Social Capital: Being Attractive Shapes Social Networks.” Social Networks 52 (2018): 42–47.

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  This study explores physical appeal as a contingency factor to brokerage. The authors argue that attractive individuals have a greater propensity to prefer brokerage positions as compared to less attractive individuals, and that they have networks with greater brokerage potential. Results confirm these hypotheses, demonstrating that compared to less attractive individuals, attractive individuals have a greater propensity to choose advantageous broker positions. Attractive persons also tend to have networks of low density.

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• Sytch, M., A. Tatarynowicz, and R. Gulati. “Toward a Theory of Extended Contact: The Incentives and Opportunities for Bridging across Network Communities.” Organization Science 23.6 (2012): 1658–1681.

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  This paper explores the antecedents of new bridging ties. It argues that the number of new bridging ties a firm enters increases with (i) interaction between its current local and bridging ties; (ii) number of bridging ties of firms of which it relies on; and (iii) number of accessible bridging compared to local partners. The authors find that dynamics of proximate network structures have a positive effect on a firm’s subsequent number of bridging ties.

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• Wang, D. “Activating Cross-Border Brokerage: Interorganizational Knowledge Transfer through Skilled Return Migration.” Administrative Science Quarterly 60.1 (2015): 133–176.

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  Wang investigates how return migrants transfer knowledge from host to home countries. He argues that the success of knowledge transfer relies on returnees’ embeddedness in host and home countries and tests for circumstances influencing returnees’ the ability to broker knowledge transfer. The study confirms that host- and home-country embeddedness help successful knowledge transfer. Success also depends on the presence of other returnees, the similarity between returnee’s industry, the returnee’s home-country backgrounds, and their home-country’s level of xenophobia.

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• Zaheer, A., and G. Soda. “Network Evolution: The Origins of Structural Holes.” Administrative Science Quarterly 54.1 (2009): 1–31.

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  This study investigates the origins of structural holes and proposes that brokerage originate from interaction between structural constraints and network opportunities. Studying the network positions of teams developing creative contents, this study reveals that structural holes emerge from past structural holes and the status and centrality of teams that members are previously from. It demonstrates that teams span fewer structural holes if their members are from cohesive teams and if members’ past teams produced comparable content. Lastly, teams spanning structural holes perform better.

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Externalities of Network Brokerage

Following Burt 1992 (cited under Foundational Works), much research has been conducted to explore and document the outcomes of network brokerage. In his original work, Burt 1992 (cited under Foundational Works) proposes that structural holes enhance information and control benefits. A set of following studies contribute not only to this idea that network brokerage gives competitive advantage, but also suggest other positive outcomes of network brokerage such as economic development, leadership emergence, and improved group performance. While much of the literature has focused on the advantages of network brokerage, more recent studies identify the dark side of network brokerage, giving an alternative view of network brokerage. Stovel and Shaw 2012 also gives an overview of the significances of network brokerage.

• Stovel, K., and L. Shaw. “Brokerage.” Annual Review of Sociology 38.1 (2012): 139–158.

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  This review article covers significance of the brokerage concept in sociological research. The authors identify three themes in the brokerage literature. First, informal relationships in brokerages make an important contribution in linking otherwise unconnected parts of a population. Second, brokers usually gain advantage from its position in the triadic relationship. Third, the characteristics of brokerage is highly related to the macro-level consequences.

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Comparing Brokerage and Closure

Extant research has also often compared Burt’s network brokerage argument against Coleman’s network closure argument. What are the trade-offs between sparse (brokerage) and highly interconnected (closure) network structures? Aral and Van Alstyne 2011 present a trade-off between diversity and bandwidth. They posit that diverse networks increase novelty received but at a slower rate while cohesive networks lower novelty received but at a faster rate. Bian 1997 compares the efficacy of strong and weak ties in job-seeking and demonstrates that while strong ties help acquire jobs in general, better jobs are acquired through indirect ties than direct ties. Gargiulo and Benassi 2000 find that when it comes to adapting networks to changes, managers do worse when their networks are filled with more cohesive than bridging ties. Ter Wal, et al. 2016 shows that when it comes to achieving venture success, closed-diverse networks present diverse knowledge domains interpreted by shared third-party ties, and open-specialized networks offer diversity through structural holes interpreted by shared schema, and this interpretation is aided by shared information between old and new knowledge. Reagans and Zuckerman 2001 reconciles this diversity-performance debate by showing that highly diverse networks reduce a team’s coordination capacity and heterogeneous networks are characterized by better learning capability. Vedres and Stark 2010 highlights structural folds in its importance of mixing or recombining knowledge practices as opposed to structural holes-related argument’s focus on brokerage opportunities, access to information, and structural constraint. Existing literature also suggests that perhaps having a combination of both brokerage and closure would be most beneficial. For example, Baum, et al. 2012 suggests that a combination of old closure ties with either young or old bridging ties enhance firm performance. Burt and Merluzzi 2016 demonstrates that oscillating between network brokerage and closure promotes network advantage. Fleming, et al. 2007 shows that network brokerage leads to more collaborative creativity and cohesion marginally improves this relationship when collaborators are independently connected. Oh, et al. 2004 highlights the idea of optimal levels of social capital, demonstrating that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between group closure and effectiveness.

• Aral, S., and M. Van Alstyne. “The Diversity-Bandwidth Trade-Off.” American Journal of Sociology 117.1 (2011): 90–171.

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  This study delves into the trade-off between structural diversity and channel bandwidth regarding the rate at which novelty is received. The authors argue diverse networks increase novelty received but at a slower rate and cohesive networks lower novelty received but at a faster rate. This study finds that the received novelty increases with (i) small information overlap, (ii) shallow current knowledge of alters, and (iii) slow refresh of alters’ knowledge stocks.

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• Baum, J. A., B. McEvily, and T. J. Rowley. “Better with Age? Tie Longevity and the Performance Implications of Bridging and Closure.” Organization Science 23.2 (2012): 529–546.

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  This study investigates the influence of tie age on performance benefits of closure and bridging ties. The authors hypothesize and demonstrate that (i) performance benefits of closure ties have a positive relationship with age; (ii) performance benefits of young bridging ties have a negative relationship with age while that of old bridging ties have a positive relationship with age; and (iii) combinations of old closure ties with either young or old bridging ties improves performance benefits.

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• Bian, Y. “Bringing Strong Ties Back In: Indirect Ties, Network Bridges, and Job Searches in China.” American Sociological Review 62.3 (1997): 366–385.

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  This study investigates the relative efficacy of strong and weak ties in job-seeking efforts in China. The study finds that (i) jobs are attained through more strong ties; (ii) job-seeking through people affiliated to high-ranked organizations increases recruitment by high-ranked employing units; (iii) job-seekers contact people through more indirect ties; (iv) job-seekers acquire better jobs through indirect ties; and (v) persons or those from higher socioeconomic backgrounds have a greater propensity to seek jobs through indirect ties.

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• Burt, R. S., and J. Merluzzi. “Network Oscillation.” Academy of Management Discoveries 2.4 (2016): 368–391.

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  Network oscillation refers to a process of repeated engagement in closure and brokerage. The authors propose that network oscillation promotes network advantage and then identify four dimensions of network volatility (i.e., churn, variation, trend, and reversal) and examine their ability to predict banker compensation. Results suggest that while network volatility does not have a direct effect on performance, it indirectly enhances network advantage.

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• Fleming, L., S. Mingo, and D. Chen. “Collaborative Brokerage, Generative Creativity, and Creative Success.” Administrative Science Quarterly 52.3 (2007): 443–475.

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  This study investigates the effect of brokered versus cohesive collaborative networks on individual creativity. The authors find that brokerage results in more collaborative creativity, and that cohesion marginally improves this relationship when collaborators are independently connected, especially when (i) individuals or their collaborators have broader experience; (ii) individuals have work experience in many organizations; and (iii) collaborators work with external collaborators. They also demonstrate that brokered ideas have less potential to be carried out in subsequent creative endeavors.

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• Gargiulo, M., and M. Benassi. “Trapped in Your Own Net? Network Cohesion, Structural Holes, and the Adaptation of Social Capital.” Organization Science 11.2 (2000): 183–196.

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  This study investigates the contradicting views of network closure and structural hole theory on the effect of an actor’s network structure on his or her ability to adapt to changes in task settings. Analyzing data gathered from a new unit formed in an Italian subsidiary of a multinational computer firm, the authors demonstrate that managers are less likely to be able to adapt networks to changes in coordination requirements when networks are characterized by cohesive ties, threatening cooperation across the new unit formed.

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• Oh, H., M. -H. Chung, and G. Labianca. “Group Social Capital and Group Effectiveness: The Role of Informal Socializing Ties.” Academy of Management Journal 47.6 (2004): 860–875.

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  Introducing a new construct group social capital, this study argues that group effectiveness is maximized at optimal levels of group social capital. The authors hypothesize that group effectiveness peaks at moderate level of closure and that groups with more diverse social relationships with other groups and more relationships with formal leaders from other groups are more effective. Results show the hypothesized relationship between group closure and effectiveness and the positive association between number of relationships with leaders and effectiveness.

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• Reagans, R., and E. W. Zuckerman. “Networks, Diversity, and Productivity: The Social Capital of Corporate R&D Teams.” Organization Science 12.4 (2001): 502–517.

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  This study attempts to reconcile the debate on the performance outcomes of demographic diversity by reframing social capital into two distinct network logits and concomitant variables: network density and network heterogeneity. With data from research and development teams, the authors argue that network diversity reduces a team’s coordination capacity and high network heterogeneity is characterized by better learning capability.

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• Ter Wal, A. L., O. Alexy Block Jr., and P. G. Sandner. “The Best of Both Worlds: The Benefits of Open-Specialized and Closed-Diverse Syndication Networks for New Ventures’ Success.” Administrative Science Quarterly 61.3 (2016): 393–432.

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  The authors propose two network configurations combining diversity and ease of interpretation: closed-diverse and open-specialized networks. Closed-diverse networks present diverse knowledge domains interpreted by shared third-party ties, and open-specialized networks offer diversity through structural holes and interpretation of new information by shared interpretive schema and information overlap between old and new knowledge. Open-diverse networks risk information overload and closed-specialized networks risk over-embeddedness. The study reveals that ventures managed by investors with open-specialized or closed-diverse networks have the greatest success probabilities.

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• Vedres, B., and D. Stark. “Structural Folds: Generative Disruption in Overlapping Groups.” American Journal of Sociology 115.4 (2010): 1150–1190.

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  As opposed to structural holes–related argument’s focus on brokerage opportunities, access to information, and structural constraint, Vedres and Stark highlight the importance of mixing or recombining knowledge practices. They argue that actors at the “structural folds” (i.e., the intersection of cohesive groups) have familiar access to diverse resources available for recombination. From a historical network analysis of postsocialist Hungarian entrepreneurs, authors show that structural folding helps group performance and increases group instability, facilitating entrepreneurial processes.

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Dynamics of Network Brokerage

Are brokerage positions and concomitant externalities permanent? Research on the dynamics of network brokerage is relatively young but is rapidly growing. For example, Buskens and van de Rijt 2008 finds that the positive externalities of network brokerage are unsustainable if everyone aims to occupy broker positions. On the other hand, McEvily, et al. 2012 argues that bridging ties have accumulating and lasting effects. Scholars also explored the structural dynamics of network brokerage. For example, Jonczyk, et al. 2016 finds that professionals keep contacts that are powerful, competent, and trusted, while losing redundant ones during role transitions. Sasovova, et al. 2010 illustrates that self-monitoring personality influences network dynamics such that when compared with low self-monitoring people, high self-monitoring people are better at attracting new friends and occupying brokering positions over time. Lingo and O’Mahony 2010 also demonstrates that brokers engage in both tertius gaudens and tertius iungens depending on the nature of the work, such as when confronted with different types of ambiguity involved in creative processes. At the organizational level, Yin, et al. 2012 finds that firms in multipartner alliances with more partners and firms with partners that are either very similar or different in firm size tend to stay influential and retain their degree of brokerage in latter alliances. Another kind of change that has gained scholarly attention is that of triadic closure. For example, studying investment decisions from partners investing in venture capital companies, Zhelyazkov 2017 finds that triadic closures reduce with failure of relationship between evaluatee and intermediary, similarity between them, and higher reputation of evaluatee compared to intermediary.

• Buskens, V., and A. van de Rijt. “Dynamics of Networks if Everyone Strives for Structural Holes.” American Journal of Sociology 114.2 (2008): 371–407.

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  While entrepreneurs can gain benefits by entering structural holes in networks, they may not maintain these advantages if others also strive for structural holes. In this study, the authors investigate, with a game theoretic model of network formation, the case when everyone tries to have structural holes. Results reveal that in the long run, no one can sustain an advantage due to the equal allocation of benefits by stable networks.

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• Jonczyk, C. D., Y. G. Lee, C. D. Galunic, and B. M. Bensaou. “Relational Changes during Role Transitions: The Interplay of Efficiency and Cohesion.” Academy of Management Journal 59.3 (2016): 956–982.

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  Studying recently promoted service professionals, this study explores the effects of a role transition on a service professional’s surrounding network. The authors demonstrate that professionals keep powerful, competent, and trusted contacts with whom they share multiple types of social relationships and that they lose redundant contacts, especially when they have alternative contacts who are competent. They also demonstrate that professionals who used to have networks that connect unconnected people are better at adding new contacts with cognitive trust.

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• Lingo, Elizabeth Long, and Siobhán O’Mahony. “Nexus Work: Brokerage on Creative Projects.” Administrative Science Quarterly 55.1 (2010): 47–81.

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  This article looks at the mechanism of brokers integrating ideas of others in creative projects. Nexus work is defined as brokerage that involves integration instead of mere transfer of ideas. The authors find that ambiguity in quality standards, occupational powers, and transformation procedures is an integral part of shared creative process. They also demonstrate ways in which brokers use their positions when faced with these types of ambiguity, thus benefiting from brokerage positions but also facilitating the creativity process.

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• McEvily, B., J. Jaffee, and M. Tortoriello. “Not All Bridging Ties Are Equal: Network Imprinting and Firm Growth in the Nashville Legal Industry, 1933–1978.” Organization Science 23.2 (2012): 547–563.

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  In contrast with prior studies demonstrating rapidly decaying effects of bridging ties, this study suggests that bridging ties have accumulating and imprinting effects. The authors argue that with learning and application of gathered knowledge, bridging ties produce accumulating effects. They also argue that bridging ties produce imprinted effects by creating lasting network benefits. Evidence was found supporting these claims in the setting of the Nashville legal industry during 1933–1978.

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• Sasovova, Z., A. Mehra, S. P. Borgatti, and M. C. Schippers. “Network Churn: The Effects of Self-Monitoring Personality on Brokerage Dynamics.” Administrative Science Quarterly 55.4 (2010): 639–670.

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  This article highlights the role of self-monitoring personality in network churn and brokerage dynamics. The authors argue that network churn characteristics and brokerage dynamics originate from differences in self-monitoring personality among individuals. Findings show that people with high self-monitoring have a greater propensity to attract new friends and over time gain new brokerage positions, their new friends also tend to be relative strangers when compared to friends of people with low self-monitoring.

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• Yin, X., J. Wu, and W. Tsai. “When Unconnected Others Connect: Does Degree of Brokerage Persist after the Formation of a Multipartner Alliance?” Organization Science 23.6 (2012): 1682–1699.

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  This study identifies the conditions under which brokerage persists upon the introduction of a multi-partner alliance setting. The authors find evidence that a firm with a higher degree of brokerage formerly would have greater propensity to stay influential and retain its degree of brokerage in the latter multipartner alliance under the following two conditions: (1) the multipartner alliance consists of more partners and (ii) partners are either very similar or very different in terms of firm size.

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• Zhelyazkov, P. I. “Interactions and Interests: Collaboration Outcomes, Competitive Concerns, and the Limits to Triadic Closure.” Administrative Science Quarterly 63.1 (2017): 210–247.

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  Analyzing longitudinal data of investment decisions from partners investing in the venture capital firms, Zhelyazkov studies how a broker’s collaboration outcomes and competitive concerns influence triadic closures. He argues that the likelihood of triadic closure is reduced by (i) failure of evaluate–intermediary relationship; (ii) similarity between evaluatee and intermediary; and (iii) higher reputation of evaluatee compared to intermediary. The author also argues that the higher reputation of evaluatee compared to intermediary will strengthen the negative effect of the second factor.

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